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		<title>Bringing human information behaviour into information systems research: an application of systems modelling</title>
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		<description><![CDATA[David Johnstone, Mary Tate, School of Information Management, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand In their influential paper, Dervin and Nilan compared and contrasted the traditional and alternative paradigms for human information behaviour research, highlighting the inadequacies of the former and promoting the importance of the latter. In this paper, we argue that the [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=byupustakawan.wordpress.com&amp;blog=3168223&amp;post=54&amp;subd=byupustakawan&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<h4><a href="mailto:david.johnstone@vuw.ac.nz">David Johnstone</a>, <a href="mailto:mary.tate@vuw.ac.nz">Mary Tate</a>,</h4>
<h4>School of Information Management, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand</h4>
<p style="text-align:justify;">In their influential paper, Dervin and Nilan compared and contrasted    the <em>traditional</em> and <em>alternative</em> paradigms for human information behaviour    research, highlighting the inadequacies of the former and promoting the importance    of the latter. In this paper, we argue that the two paradigms are not irreconcilable.    We offer a research framework that allows qualitative and quantitative views    of the same problem to be combined using systems models. We demonstrate how    this approach can be used to reconcile the six key differences between the two    paradigms as argued by Dervin and Nilan<span id="more-54"></span></p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">Introduction</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">People seek out and use information constantly as part of their daily life.    Information relating to work, leisure, health, money, family, and a host of    other topics, is sought from a huge range of sources. Increasingly, at least    some of these sources are digital in nature. The use of information in the form    of digital media is becoming ubiquitous in homes, libraries, offices, and also    in industries that have not traditionally been seen as primarily information-based,    such as manufacturing, construction and farming. Yet digital information is    not the be-all and end-all of information provisioning. Many studies in decision    making, marketing and informatics have shown that people apply a rich context    when seeking for information, making decisions, and forming opinions.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Dervin and Nilan (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Dervin">1986</a>) suggested, in their influential    paper, that people <em>construct</em> sense and meaning appropriate to their context    from the systems available to them, and from other sources. They contend that    a research paradigm that is human-centred, situational, constructivist, and    holistic is essential for studying the process by which people interact with    the information in their environment. They argue that this approach is fundamentally    incompatible with traditional approaches, particularly within the field of Information    Systems, when studying the way people interact with information.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Yet many fields rely on some ability to generalise about and predict the way    human beings behave with information. For decades, developers, designers, and    often researchers of Information Systems have assumed that users of data systems    employ a standard and shared set of interpretative structures to gain meaning    from the data (Boland <a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Boland">1987</a>). Any introductory systems    analysis and design textbook will describe the process for working with business    users to capture and document what are implicitly assumed to be shared definitions    and rules about organizational data, so these data can be captured in databases    and processed by computer systems.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Beyond the purview of Information Systems, many popular approaches to organizational    design and management, such as business process mapping, business process re-engineering,    and activity-based costing, rely on a level of predictability in the inputs    and outputs produced by both individuals and business units. These inputs and    outputs may include tangible goods and/or information in a variety of media.    The process modeller or activity-based costing accountant also need to be able    to assume that people interacting with information will do so with some degree    of consistency.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This needs to be balanced with an awareness of the rich context that people apply to interpreting the information they receive. A human-centred view of information processing examines the roles humans play in translating received information into action. This will include judgement calls (do I act on it? &#8230;ignore it? &#8230;pass it on?) People may develop behavioural habits when interacting with information that could either support or inhibit both organizational efficiency and effectiveness.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This richness has been largely ignored by Information Systems researchers. Dervin    and Nilan argued that a major reason for this neglect is that studying the way    people interact with digital information requires a fundamentally different    paradigm, which cannot be reconciled with the <em>traditional</em> IS research paradigm.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">In this paper, we respond to the issues raised by Dervin and Nilan. We try to answer the questions: how can we usefully study human information behaviour? What people do with information from digital and other sources once they have it? How can we use insights from Information Science research to inform disciplines like Information Systems if they use irreconcilable paradigms? How can we respond to the challenging issues raised by Dervin and Nilan and develop a research framework that is structured enough to meet the needs of information systems and organizational process designers, yet flexible enough to incorporate consideration of the rich context of human behaviour?</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">First, we define human information behaviour and provide some examples. Then,    in the literature review section, we briefly review Information Systems literature,    noting that several researchers have identified a gap in understanding between    the production of information and its effective use. Then, we review literature    from the Information Science discipline, which has taken a strong interest in    information behaviour, with more research using a human-centred, interpretivist    paradigm. We note that this has lent some useful insights into human information    behaviour, but has two main limitations for informing information systems research.    The first we have already identified as the use of apparently irreconcilable    paradigms, the second is that Information Science researchers tend to concentrate    on a particular sub-set of human information behaviour, that is, <em>information    seeking</em>.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The following section provides an overview of the paradigm incompatibility    problem, and how it can be resolved. This is developed in more detail with a    discussion about the usefulness of systems modelling for mixed paradigm research.    We propose systems modelling as a tool to develop a research framework capable    of coping with these fundamentally different approaches. The phenomena (both    computer-based and human information processing) lend themselves well to systems    thinking. Other advantages, such as decomposition, ease of representation and    analysis, and the incorporation of external system moderators, are discussed    in this light.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The next section illustrates our proposed approach by developing a systems    model that specifically addresses each point raised by Dervin and Nilan. Finally,    we discuss implications for research and practice, followed by a conclusion.</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">What is human information behaviour?</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">We argue that the evolution of information systems, from automation of highly    structured tasks, to support for semi-structured tasks, has opened up a gap    between the production of information by information systems, and the processing    and use of that information. We suggest that this gap is filled by observable    human behaviour.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Highly structured administrative tasks were easy targets for automation exercises,    and as the processes and outputs did not fundamentally change, efficiency gains    were relatively straightforward to quantify. Now organizations are filled with    information (or <em>knowledge</em>) workers, who make extensive use of information retrieved    from a computer-based IS to perform many tasks that contribute to organizational    processes. This transformation from automating to augmenting human effort has    shifted the problem domain from structured decision-making to semi-structured    decision-making, from clerical work to case and managerial work, from understanding    and supporting procedures to understanding and supporting how people work with    information.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">A great deal of effort is spent on both what information end-users should receive,    or at least have access to, and in what form should this information be presented.    Business needs and human-computer interaction are both taken into account. But    what do people do with the information once they have it? Presumably they examine    it and apply judgement and/or procedure to determine the next course of action.    The many options open to them will be human, process and context specific:     they may use it to update previous information, or they may store it, discard    it, pass it on to someone else, combine it with other information, embed it    in a report, etc.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">These observable actions are collectively referred to as <em>human information    behaviour</em>. They form part of the overall phenomenon of <em>human information    processing</em>. The totality of human information processing also includes    internal cognitive processes, which do not necessarily result in observable    behaviour. In this paper we concern ourselves with the observable aspects of    information behaviour.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Taylor defined information behaviour as &#8220;&#8230; the    sum of activities through which information becomes useful &#8230;&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Taylor">Taylor, 1991</a>: 221). Taylor&#8217;s    view was that an individual&#8217;s information behaviour is dependent upon the type    of person, the problem being resolved, the setting (of both people and problem)    and what constitutes resolution of the problem.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The most significant call for more attention to be paid to information behaviour    has come from the writings of Thomas Davenport. In his book <em>Information    Ecology</em>, he describes information behaviour in terms of:</p>
<blockquote><p>&#8220;&#8230;how individuals approach and handle information. This includes    searching for it, using it, modifying it, sharing it, hoarding it, even ignoring    it. Consequently, when we manage information behavior, we&#8217;re attempting to    improve the overall effectiveness of an organization&#8217;s information environment    through concerted action.&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Davenport97">Davenport, 1997</a>: 83-84)</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Any patterns in information behaviour and attitudes across the organization    (and groups within the organization) help define what he calls the <em>information    culture</em> (and subcultures). Davenport argued strongly for the need to manage    information behaviour, whereby the information culture would better support    organizational objectives:</p>
<blockquote><p>&#8220;Some widely publicized technologies &#8230;can help capture and disseminate      organizational knowledge, but they&#8217;re of little help if the people involved      aren&#8217;t already predisposed to use information effectively.&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Davenport97">Davenport, 1997</a>: 85)</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">He goes on to identify &#8220;three critical types of information behavior that    improve a company&#8217;s information environment&#8221;: [p.87]</p>
<ol style="text-align:justify;" type="a">
<li><strong>Sharing information</strong>: &#8220;&#8230;the voluntary act of making information    available to others.&#8221; [p.87] Often this involves hierarchically horizontal information    transfer (peer-to-peer), as opposed to the involuntary information reporting    structures based on vertical information transfer.</li>
<li><strong>Handling information overload</strong>: filtering an overabundance    of available information so that attention (limited as it is) can be directed    to that which is most useful.</li>
<li><strong>Dealing with multiple meanings</strong>: recognising the fact that    business-relevant information items may have different meanings across different    functional groups within the organization.</li>
</ol>
<p style="text-align:justify;">In a preliminary study that classified types of information behaviour     within an organizational context, Bonner  <em>et al.</em> (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#BonnerCasey96">1996</a>)    raise some interesting questions. Is it possible to identify the relative combination    of strengths of type for individual (and group) information behaviour? Would    it be possible to establish combinations of information behaviour type as being more suitable to    certain types of work? Can training programmes be developed to strengthen desirable    information behaviour types?</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Bonner <em>et al.</em> defined an individual&#8217;s information behaviour in terms    of their behaviour at a point in time in dealing with information within a given    information environment (or context). It includes the person&#8217;s behaviour with    respect to:</p>
<ul style="text-align:justify;">
<li> determining the existence of, and locating needed information related to      a specific problem or issue;</li>
<li>recognizing new potential uses to which particular information may be put;</li>
<li>combining and integrating disparate information;</li>
<li>evaluating the worth of information;</li>
<li>determining the cost of information;</li>
<li>communicating information appropriately;</li>
<li>distilling key information from a larger collection; and</li>
<li>storing and archiving information effectively.</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This working definition formed the basis of an exploratory survey designed    to examine what information workers did with information. Questions outlining    different generic situations were used to establish likely behaviour. From    the collected data, factor analysis identified seven information behaviour <em>types</em>:</p>
<ul style="text-align:justify;">
<li>Information Opportunity Recognition (<em>Pioneer</em>)</li>
<li> Retrieval Confidence (<em>Librarian</em>)</li>
<li> Resource Consideration (<em>Accountant</em>)</li>
<li> Awareness of Others&#8217; Information Needs (<em>Communicator</em>)</li>
<li> Extraction Effectiveness (<em>Prospector</em>)</li>
<li> Discernment (<em>Gourmet</em>)</li>
<li> Hoarding (<em>Squirrel</em>)</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This study suggests that it is possible to identify useful categories of human    information behaviour in an organizational context, yet relatively little attention    has been paid to information behaviour by information systems researchers.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">In the next section we review previous IS studies that support the need for    research into human information behaviour, and suggest some reasons why IS research    has been slow to address that need.</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">Literature review</h2>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">Information behaviour: an information systems view</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Very little attention has been paid in Information Systems (IS) research to    human information behaviour. An information technology-based approach to IS research may be seen    to emphasise the functional capabilities of the information technology available. It is difficult    to see where human information processing, beyond interaction with the information technology-based    system, naturally fits in.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Generally, an information technology-based IS covers those parts of the business processes where    information handling can be effectively automated. The nature of this IS requires    every information processing option to be specified and programmable. The modern    IS relies on the establishment of generalised, systematic behaviour and cannot    recognise the diversity of human preferences and behaviour. Nor would we necessarily    expect, or even want it to; Zuboff (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#">1988</a>) argues this is what    humans are good at.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The information technology-based IS also requires every data item used by the IS to be uniquely    and precisely defined, and storable on a computer. This represents an information    engineer&#8217;s view: a <em>hard</em> view of information.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><em>Received wisdom</em> tends to set the boundary of an IS at the point at which    it produces outputs for end-users. This is pervasive in traditional analysis    and design literature, in which a key task is identifying the system scope.    This is defined as bound by <em>interfaces</em> to the external world through    which the system receives inputs and produces outputs.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">In this view, the usefulness of these outputs in creating meaning and information    for the person receiving them are not of concern to the IS development team,    once the requirements for the input or output have been agreed. The transmission    of output is viewed as an end in itself. This appears to be consistent with    what Davenport (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Davenport94">1994</a>) refers to as <em>IT-Centred    Information Management</em> (ITCIM), represented in Figure 1 below.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img class="alignleft" src="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/p191fig1.gif" alt="" /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<div style="text-align:justify;"><strong>Figure 1: Information technology centred information management</strong></div>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This is not to say that human involvement with IS has been completely ignored.    Some IS researchers have identified the gap in understanding of how people work    with the information produced by computer systems, although we were not able    to identify any studies that addressed the gap.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Kling had frequently written about the need for a better understanding    of how people work before improved productivity from new information technologies    can be expected (Kling <a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Kling87">1987</a>, <a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Kling91">1991</a>;     Iacono and Kling <a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Iacono">1987</a>). He observed, &#8220;&#8230;it is common    for organizations to underinvest in the support for helping people effectively    integrate computerised systems into their work.&#8221; (Kling <a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Kling96">1996</a>: 302)</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">To integrate information technology-based- and human information processing more effectively, Bacon argues for information provision to take into account how end-users translate information into action. His research demonstrated how information needs to be made &#8220;&#8230;purposeful, relevant, and of optimal value&#8221;. He defined the type of information designed to optimise these desirable attributes as <em>kinetic    information</em> &#8211; &#8220;&#8230;that which is oriented to or energises purposeful and    relevant action in critical or key areas of the organization&#8221;  (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Bacon">Bacon, 1994</a>: 448).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">A focus on information behaviour could help identify the kind of information    that lends itself to &#8216;purposeful and relevant action&#8217;. Furthermore, aspects of exhibited    information behaviour could serve as measures reflecting the extent of the    information worker&#8217;s information awareness.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Boland noted with concern that, &#8220;The researcher must&#8230; assume that the users of data systems employ a standard and shared set of interpretive structures to gain meaning from the data&#8221;. (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Boland">Boland, 1987</a>): 364)</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">As Davenport concludes:</p>
<blockquote><p>&#8220;Humans prefer information and knowledge over data. For 40 years    we&#8217;ve managed data and called it information. But people prefer richer information    diets &#8211; information with human context, experience, insight and elaboration.&#8221;    (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Davenport97">Davenport, 1997</a>: 7)</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">There are implicit assumptions about the information workers who use these information technology-based    support systems:</p>
<blockquote><p>1. that they know what to do with the information, once delivered; and<br />
2. that they are aware of how their work affects business objectives, and<br />
3. that they can prioritise and modify their information processing accordingly.</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">DeLone and McLean (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#DeLone">1992</a>) published a widely quoted causal    model for judging IS success, based on a detailed consideration of 180 (mainly    positivist) seminal IS articles. Six critical dimensions of success are proposed,    including information use (the other five are: system quality, information quality,    user satisfaction, individual impact, and organization impact). However, &#8216;use&#8217;    in this case refers to whether or not the information received is used, not    how or how well it is used.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Bonner applied DeLone and McLean&#8217;s model    to a case study and found some evidence supporting an additional dimension of    success: <em>information awareness</em> &#8211; &#8220;&#8230;an individual&#8217;s level of awareness    for the existence, purpose and value of information and of its probable impact    at the individual and organizational level&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Bonner96">Bonner, 1996</a>: 8). Not only is an important information behaviour component missing from DeLone and McLean&#8217;s model, but it was missed because the articles reviewed did not consider information behaviour to be important in IS research.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Landauer (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Landauer">1995</a>), having argued how unproductive modern    computer-based systems are, went on to strongly advocate <em>user-centred design</em>,    designing human-computer interfaces to be both useful and usable to the end-user.    His book represents a rare, thoughtful, pragmatic look at the issues and practicalities    surrounding user-centred design. In particular, human information behaviour is    examined—albeit on the periphery of the system—in a way that relates    to design issues. This appears to be consistent with what Davenport (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Davenport94">1994</a>) refers to as <em>Human-Centred Information Management</em> (HCIM), represented in Figure 2 below.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img class="aligncenter" src="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/p191fig2.gif" alt="" /></p>
<div><strong>Figure 2: Human-centred information management</strong></div>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Checkland (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Checkland">1981</a>) developed the Soft Systems Methodology    (SSM), which employs &#8216;rich pictures&#8217; to help users define the problem and explain    their needs from their own perspective, using their own images and language,    and communicating this to the system designers. It is a mechanism by which organizational    factors can be incorporated into system design for both IT-based and human-oriented    issues, including contextual factors.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Using an SSM perspective, Winter <em>et al.</em> highlight the fact that an information system &#8220;&#8230;is one that necessarily involves two systems, a &#8216;serving&#8217; system &#8230;and a &#8216;served&#8217; system of purposeful action.&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Winter">Winter <em>et al.</em>, 1995</a>: 130) While the primary purpose of the paper was to examine the role for SSM in system development methodologies, the concept of the serving/served dichotomy is useful to us. It highlights the fact that there is another system to take into account with respect to IS development.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The interesting thing about this SSM representation of the relationship between    the serving and the served system is that as well as illustrating the gap between    information systems and human information behaviour, it also incorporates an    approach for bridging the gap using systems models.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Winter <em>et al.</em> also examine appropriate paradigms (or <em>metatheories</em> as they call them) for modelling such systems, applying Checkland&#8217;s argument for two basic    paradigms in the systems movement. Their conclusion was that:</p>
<blockquote><p>&#8220;The served system, which represents purposeful human action in      real-world organizations, is rooted in the theory of Paradigm II, better known      as &#8216;soft&#8217; systems thinking, while the serving information system, with its      link to computer technology, is rooted in the theory of Paradigm I, better      known as &#8216;hard&#8217; systems thinking. More generally, [the 'served' system] is      rooted in the&#8230;interpretive paradigm, while [the 'serving' system] is rooted      in the&#8230;functionalist paradigm.&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Winter">Winter <em>et al.</em>, 1995</a>: 134)</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">These paradigmatic differences echo the dichotomy identified by Dervin and    Nilan, which is discussed in detail in the next section of the paper. But this    discussion by Winter <em>et al.</em> <em>also</em> describes a systems model incorporating two    sub-systems, one studied using an interpretativist paradigm and one studied using    a positivist paradigm. This foreshadows the approach we present in the &#8220;Paradigm    incompatibility and reconciliation&#8221; section below. Unfortunately, despite the potential    of SSM as a framework to address the gap we have identified, we are not aware    of any studies that have used it in this way.</p>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">Information behaviour &#8211; an information science view</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The discipline of Information Science offers us different ways of conceptualising    information, but articulates many of the same issues.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">An interdisciplinary paper by McCreadie and Rice established a taxonomy classifying a range of previous studies examining information seeking behaviour. In one classification, access to information is described in terms of the technology used to produce it. They note that such an IT-centred perspective leads to &#8220;&#8230;a common, but mistaken assumption that access to technology equals access to information&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#McCreadie">McCreadie and Rice, 1999</a>: 51).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">However, McCreadie and Rice also identified a more constructivist, sense-making approach to defining information, which equates more closely with Davenport&#8217;s concept of human-centred information management. This approach defines</p>
<blockquote><p>&#8220;&#8230;information as part of the communication process&#8221; which needs      to be understood &#8220;based on observation of human behaviour in the information      seeking and sense making process and on the meanings intended and interpreted      by the participants.&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#McCreadie">McCreadie and Rice, 1999</a>: 48-49)</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">If human information processing describes what must be done, information behaviour    describes how they do it. This human-centred perspective on information sees    the way people gather and handle information as an integral part of the information    itself, not a separate, distinguishable activity. According to McCreadie and    Rice, this alternative approach sees information behaviour not as</p>
<blockquote><p>&#8220;&#8230;physical or cognitive activities separate from work (that is      as preparation for accomplishing their real tasks), but inherent regular activities      that constitute the very nature of what people do in organizations.&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#McCreadie">McCreadie and Rice, 1999</a>: 48)</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This view underlines the importance of considering the human aspects of information    behaviour within the context of an information system.</p>
<blockquote><p>&#8220;&#8230;understanding must be based on observation of human behaviour      in the information seeking and sense making process and on the meanings intended      and interpreted by the participants.&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#McCreadie">McCreadie and Rice, 1999</a>: 49)</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The value of this perspective is that it brings considerations of cognitive    influences and constraints into the discourse about information behaviour. This    might include domain understanding, literacy, skill-level, learning styles and    the importance of the interaction between system and user.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Wilson (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Wilson">1997</a>) developed a <em>revised general model of information behaviour</em>, based on an integrated review of information seeking behaviour in various disciplines outside Information Science (including studies of: personality in psychology, consumer behaviour, innovation research, health communication studies, organizational decision-making, and information systems design). The model was essentially made up of two constructs, <em>information seeking</em> and <em>information processing and use</em>, represented in a circular, iterative system. The review comprehensively expanded upon the former construct, while more or less ignoring the latter. This may be appropriate in an information service environment, such as in a library, but is significantly less useful in an organizational context. This focus on information seeking, as opposed to information use, is pervasive in the Information Science literature.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Allen, in his book <em>Information tasks</em>, brings together much of the academic literature advocating the need for user-centred approaches to information system development. A <em>user-centred approach</em> is one where &#8220;the needs of the users play a more influential role than data    or technology.&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Allen">Allen, 1996</a>: 1). He provides a rich insight into how a user&#8217;s &#8216;knowledge    structures&#8217; and &#8216;abilities, styles and preferences&#8217; influence their information    behaviour. He argues that these factors must be incorporated into the system    design process.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Allen claims that systems developed using traditional approaches are &#8220;&#8230;opaque    to the user. They are complex, because of built in functional complexity and    because they are designed to accommodate multiple agents: authors, value-added    information professionals, and (perhaps least of all) users.&#8221;  (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Allen">Allen, 1996</a>: 16).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">By contrast, he argues the user-centred design &#8220;&#8230;begins with the user rather    than the data. User-centred design emphasizes the process by which users become    informed, rather than the information things that are used in the process.&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Allen">Allen, 1996</a>: 16)</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">It appears that Davenport&#8217;s concerns about singularity of meaning and contextual    concerns, and Landauer&#8217;s strong argument for more user-centred design, have    been issues for information scientists as well. Certainly both Information Systems    and Information Science, as disciplines, have research interests in human information    processing &#8211; albeit from different contexts (information systems versus information    services). But to what degree can the interdisciplinary research be integrated?</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">In an oft-quoted seminal paper, Dervin and Nilan (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Dervin">1986</a>)    saw only limited value in information systems research. The problem, they argued,    was fundamental &#8211; IS academics tended to see information, information processing,    and consequently information systems from an engineering perspective. IS research    was based on what they called the <em>traditional paradigm</em>, &#8220;&#8230;one    in which information is seen as objective&#8230; It is one that searches for trans-situational    propositions about the nature and use of information systems. It does this by    focusing on externally observable dimensions of behaviour and events.&#8221;    (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Dervin">Dervin and Nilan, 1986</a>: 16)</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">By contrast, their <em>alternative paradigm</em></p>
<blockquote><p>&#8220;&#8230;posits information as something constructed by human beings.      It sees users as beings who are free&#8230;to create from systems and situations      whatever they choose. It focuses on how people construct sense,&#8230;It focuses      on understanding information use in particular situations and is concerned      with what leads up to and what follows intersections with systems.&#8221;  (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Dervin">Dervin and Nilan, 1986</a>: 16)</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Dervin and Nilan outlined six categories where the <em>traditional</em> and <em>alternative</em> paradigms are most seriously contrasted in the literature.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">1. <strong>Objective versus subjective information</strong>: the traditional    view of information reflects <em>absolute</em> meaning; whereas the alternative view    is that meaning is constructed in relation to the context. This echoes Davenport&#8217;s    multiplicity of information meaning.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">2. <strong>Mechanistic, passive users versus constructivist, active users</strong>:    the former, traditional view treats users as passive recipients of necessary    data from the information system, whereas the latter, alternative view sees    them as &#8220;&#8230;purposive, self-controlling, sense-making beings.&#8221; [p.16]    Thus, the mechanistic view ignores the intervening user behaviour required    to become informed, and the influence of other moderators such as culture, access    and context.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">3. <strong>Trans-situationality versus situationality</strong>: the discovery    of predictable causality across different situations is an ideal which is difficult    to achieve in IS research. Yet this is often the primary objective of the traditional    paradigm. The alternative paradigm accepts that a user may exhibit different    information behaviour in different contexts, in spite of identical input.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">4. <strong>Atomistic versus holistic views of experience</strong>: the traditional    paradigm focuses on the computerised aspects of an information system; the alternative    paradigm views an information system holistically, accepting that information    is processed both before and after the computer is involved.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">5. <strong>External behaviour versus internal cognition</strong>: the traditional view is that only externally measurable behaviour should be used in research, as internal cognitive states are not readily measurable. Nevertheless, Dervin and Nilan noted that there were increasing calls for incorporating cognitive psychology into research into information behaviour (the alternative spproach).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">A middle ground may exist that recognition of individual cognitive processes affecting the observable behaviour, while also accepting that we would not seek to determine exactly what those cognitive processes are. This constraint could be relaxed at a later date, but at present we are concerned with the <em>what</em>, as opposed to the <em>why</em>.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">6. <strong>Chaotic vs. systematic individuality</strong>: the traditional paradigm seeks to establish sufficiently systematic behaviour that some generic assertions can still be made. The alternative paradigm points out that human information behaviour is necessarily individualistic, and thus generic assertions may not be particularly helpful in any given situation.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Dervin and Nilan contrasted these research approaches and found them to be effectively irreconcilable &#8211; being based on fundamentally different paradigms. So how is human information processing (incorporating information behaviour) going to be integrated with traditional IS design methods?</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">Paradigm incompatibility and reconciliation</h2>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">Overview</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify;">So far, this paper has established that:</p>
<blockquote><p>a) there is a gap between production of information by computer systems,      and purposeful use of information, that is filled by human information behaviour;<br />
b) both Information Systems practitioners and academics appear to give information      behaviour little attention;<br />
c) Information Science academics recognise the significance of information      behaviour, and often employ an interpretivist paradigm &#8211; which is appropriate      for the study of human behavioural phenomena &#8211; but this research tends to      focus mostly on information seeking;<br />
d) the challenge for academics is to find an effective way to incorporate both positivist and interpretivist paradigms in information behaviour research, to suit both the IT-centred and human-centred components of system design respectively.</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Is it possible that the two paradigms can be reconciled, and more specifically,    be employed to:</p>
<ul style="text-align:justify;">
<li> Describe a theoretical model of human information behaviour that incorporates both IT-centred and human-centred elements that can be readily tested?</li>
<li> Be flexible enough to deal with both collective and individual perspectives, from both a high and detailed level of design?</li>
<li> Ultimately lead to improved methods of system design and implementation?</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The Information Science literature appears the more flexible of the two disciplines, with a generally <em>softer</em> view of information; where meaning is constructed by individuals according to their contextual factors. End-users are not seen simply as passive receptors of <em>hard</em> information at the periphery of a computerised information system. Instead, they are at the centre of attention, retrieving information from a variety of sources (including computerised ones) and, based n personal and environmental factors, will translate their interpretations of the information received into actions. It does not seem likely that this process can be readily automated without human intervention at key points. This reframing of information processing elevates information behaviour to a level that invites more serious attention.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">However, regardless of the merits of the HCIM perspective, organizations today still overwhelmingly use an ITCIM approach to IS design. End-users may be involved in determining the sort of information they want and how they want to receive it, but we still know little about how that information is to be effectively communicated and translated into actions that form part of the business processes. Some elements of the human-oriented task may be prescribed, but the issue of individual variation of meaning construction is generally ignored.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Thus the IS and Information Science literatures provide us with both <em>hard</em> and <em>soft</em> views of information. These views lead to correspondingly differing views of information systems. Both views have their merits. The IT-based component may deliver <em>hard</em> information to the end-user, who will interpret it (rendering it <em>soft</em>) and act upon it. Both IS perspectives incorporate the same information processing tasks (to receive, store, retrieve, transform, and distribute information), but they contrast singularity with multiplicity of information meaning in an organizational environment. Structured translation of data into action (such as printing cheques) is contrasted with the semi-structured and unstructured approach (such as devising budgets and strategic planning).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The problem with understanding the value added to the delivered, <em>hard</em> information by human involvement is that it has a <em>softening</em> effect. The application of rich contextual judgement, creating and working with <em>soft</em> information, places human information processing outside the aegis of the traditional IS engineers and designers.</p>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">Systems thinking</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Systems thinking is based on the idea that the whole may be more than the sum of the parts. The systems movement emerged in the 1940s, advanced considerably by the works of biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy, founder of General Systems Theory, including the generic rules of system behaviour (von Bertalanffy <a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#vonBertalanffy">1968</a>), and Norbert Wiener, founder of <em>cybernetics</em>, focusing on system control processes (Wiener <a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Wiener">1948</a>).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Checkland provides a detailed history of the systems movement and the variety of classification systems available. In particular, he focuses on what he calls <em>human activity systems</em>, which are &#8220;&#8230;sets of human activities more or less consciously ordered in wholes as a result of some underlying purpose or mission&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Checkland">Checkland, 1981</a>: 111). He points out that such a system would be capable of purposeful activity if certain conditions were met. These include the need for:</p>
<ul style="text-align:justify;">
<li> an on-going purpose;</li>
<li> a measure of performance (to gauge how well the purpose was met);</li>
<li> a decision-making process, as part of the transformation of inputs into outputs;</li>
<li> a <em>system environment</em>, representing components external to the system that still have an impact on the system;</li>
<li> a <em>system boundary</em>, which separates the system from its environment; and</li>
<li> <em>subsystems</em>, representing a series of interconnected systems which, together, comprise the system under scrutiny.</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:justify;">These concepts provide the basis for the description and analysis of human activity systems. They have proven to be particularly useful in areas where the more traditional scientific approaches have failed; where the problem domain is unstructured, poorly understood, complex or based on human behaviour.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Hartman (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Hartman">1988</a>), in <em>Conceptual foundations of organization theory</em>, presents a carefully argued justification for the use and co-existence of multiple theories and paradigms in research on organizations and suggests this can be done within an overall systems approach.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Influential systems thinking theorist Midgley also argues for the compatibility of systems thinking with a variety of research paradigms (Midgley <a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Midgley">, 2000</a>).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Hartman notes that one of the traditions of organization theory is to conceive of an organization as:</p>
<blockquote><p>&#8220;&#8230;an entity that is subject to functional analysis, that is, analysing systems into their functions is one way of explaining what they do&#8230;A flowchart&#8230;expresses the functional analysis of a system&#8217;s capacity; the capacity itself can be expressed as the relationship between the system&#8217;s input and its output. This is a good way to explain a wide range of phenomena that can be viewed as input followed by output. But the strength of that sort of explanation is that it is perfectly compatible with further explanation of a different kind. &#8230;At a certain point, one may say &#8216;don&#8217;t tell me what role this subsystem plays, tell me about its components and what causes them to be in the state they are in&#8217;&#8230;an organization theorist may turn from saying how subsystems and sub-functions contribute to the activity of the whole and go into detail about how people in the system do their job and why.&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Hartman">Hartman, 1988</a>: 15)</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">By conceptualising both human information work and information systems as sub-systems    within an organizational context, we now have a framework that allows us to    explore their inter-relationships, while preserving the flexibility to use different    paradigms to analyse the internal behaviour of each.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">In the second part of this section, we introduce systems modelling, and illustrate    its capabilities by focusing on a model of information behaviour.</p>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">Use of system modelling</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Systems thinking provides a convenient approach to studying a variety of phenomena where the system&#8217;s boundary, inputs, outputs and objectives can be identified. Figure 3 represents a system model in its simplest form, where the process transforms the input into the output</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img class="aligncenter" src="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/p191fig3.gif" alt="" /></p>
<div><strong>Figure 3: The simplest system model</strong></div>
<p style="text-align:justify;">A system is typically evaluated in two ways: how well the system achieves its objectives in terms of its outputs (<em>effectiveness</em>); and how few resources are required as inputs to be processed to achieve its objectives (<em>efficiency</em>). Appropriate measures are required in both cases (in organizations, effectiveness is often based on quality measures, while efficiency is normally based on financial measures).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">A systems model provides a diagrammatic method for exploring the nature of a system. Almost all organizational activities could be considered to be parts of different systems and subsystems.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">First, we consider the information system component of the framework. As its name would suggest, an information system would seem to be an ideal candidate for systems modelling &#8211; particularly considering its increasing complexity and cost. Many IS textbooks use a systems model to introduce the information systems concept. In a typical example, Alter defines an information system in terms of the IT-based processing of information:</p>
<blockquote><p>&#8220;a system that uses information technology to capture, transmit, store, retrieve, manipulate, or display information used in one or more business processes.&#8221; (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Alter">Alter 1996</a>: 714)</p></blockquote>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This can be represented as a system model (Figure 4).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img class="aligncenter" src="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/p191fig4.gif" alt="" /></p>
<div><strong>Figure 4: Alter&#8217;s definition of an information system represented as a system model</strong></div>
<p>This system, clearly rooted in the ITCIM perspective, will be used to capture    or retrieve input data, manipulate the input data in some way, and store, display    or transmit the output information.</p>
<p>A system model offered by Schultheis and Sumner provides a more flexible, integrative view (Figure 5). Here the employment of IT, represented by the hardware and software components, is still seen as important, but no more so than other essential components. The model explicitly introduces a human element (people), an organizational element (procedures) and an information element (stored data).</p>
<p><img class="aligncenter" src="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/p191fig5.gif" alt="" /></p>
<div><strong>Figure 5: Schultheis &amp; Sumner&#8217;s system model of an information system (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Schultheis">Schultheis, 1998: 40</a>) </strong></div>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Comparing the two system models can be instructive. Alter&#8217;s model emphasises process, while Schultheis and Sumner&#8217;s model identifies key components. Other system orientations are possible, depending on the modeller&#8217;s purpose.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The nature of system processes can be formally represented as interconnected subsystems &#8211; known as decomposition &#8211; to any level of detail required. Decomposition is an essential tool for the analysis and design of systems. Some subsystem processes may require further elaboration (i.e., further decomposition), but this may not be possible (if the process details are unclear) or desirable (if only a higher level view is required). When this happens, the process is left as a <em>black box</em>, still clearly identified in the overall system, but possibly requiring further investigation to outline the process mechanisms.</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">Applications of systems modelling to information behaviour research</h2>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">Response to Dervin and Nilan</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify;">To illustrate the power and flexibility of systems thinking, a system model incorporating both IT-based and human information processing is developed in direct response to the six issues raised by Dervin and Nilan (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Dervin">1986</a>), discussed earlier in the paper.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">In fact, Dervin and Nilan were particularly critical of systems thinking, relegating this approach to a tool useful for <em>hard</em> disciplines like engineering, incapable of coping with human-oriented issues. This assumption is understandable, given the dominant IT focus at present, and appears to be held true by other Information Science academics (e.g., Hjorland <a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Hjorland">2000</a>).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The following considers each of Dervin and Nilan&#8217;s paradigmatic concerns in turn, providing the basis for an evolving system model that incorporates both IT-based and human information processing.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">1. <strong>Chaotic versus systematic individuality</strong>: organizations typically require some degree of systematic individuality to ensure necessary tasks are done to a minimum standard. Even so, chaotic individuality may be significant in some situations and can be addressed in a systems model by simply differentiating between the two types of information processing. Figure 6 outlines how the classic DATA -&gt; PROCESS -&gt; INFORMATION model of an IS can be modified to take this into account. There are clear parallels with Winter <em>et al.</em>&#8216;s (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Winter">1995</a>) serving and served systems.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The model is arguably simplistic, given that human information processing may well include systematic tasks requiring little, if any, decision-making. However, such structured information-based tasks are often candidates for IT-based automation, and are of less interest here.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img class="aligncenter" src="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/p191fig6.gif" alt="" /></p>
<div><strong>Figure 6: An IS model incorporating both systematic (IT-based) and chaotic (human) information processing.</strong></div>
<p style="text-align:justify;">2. <strong>Objective versus subjective information</strong>: the simple model is further differentiated by identifying the source of different types of information (Figure 7).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img class="aligncenter" src="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/p191fig7.gif" alt="" /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">3. <strong>Mechanistic, passive users versus constructivist, active users</strong>: Dervin and Nilan point out that users do not process information in the same mechanistic way that computers do, and that both personal and contextual moderators will affect what actually happens (Figure 8). This enables the organization to identify moderators that may improve the quality of the information, such as training and job rotation (personal) and ergonomics and computer response time (environmental).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img class="aligncenter" src="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/p191fig8.gif" alt="" /></p>
<div><strong>Figure 8: The modified IS model incorporating the moderating factors (personal &amp; environmental) affecting the production of subjective information.</strong></div>
<p style="text-align:justify;">4. <strong>Atomistic versus holistic views of experience</strong>: the IT-based component assumes information can be broken down into fundamental data units that can be stored and retrieved without alteration. However, the human perspective suggests information is richer than the atomistic view allows. System decomposition allows for models to be broken down into further levels of detail. These levels may be described atomistically (such as the data flow diagrams used in IS design) or holistically (identifying interactive components relevant to each user). Note that human information processing would have access to atomised data as well (in the form of objective information) through the IT-based information processing subsystem.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img class="aligncenter" src="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/p191fig9.gif" alt="" /></p>
<div style="text-align:justify;"><strong>Figure 9: The modified IS model incorporating both atomised data and rich data as system inputs, processed by the IT-based and human components.</strong></div>
<p style="text-align:justify;">5. <strong>External behaviour versus internal cognition</strong>: there is a need to accept the relevance of cognitive factors when examining information behaviour. By identifying it as a component in the system model, cognition can be considered at a variety of levels.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">For example, it could be placed within the Human Information Processing box as a subsystem transforming rich data into subjective information at either an individual information worker level, or at a higher level in an attempt to model such cognitive behaviour in broader terms. The field of Cognitive Psychology could be explored to provide models focusing on the mechanisms of such transformations.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Alternatively, the cognitive process could be recognised in the model, but left unexplored, applying it purely as a <em>black box</em> that identifies input and output, but omits any details about the processing. For example, it could be placed amongst the Personal Moderators &#8211; thereby identifying it as an important factor, but placing it outside the system boundary. This places the emphasis on its effect on human information processing, without concern for the mechanisms leading to these effects &#8211; as they are deemed outside system control.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">6. <strong>Trans-situationality versus situationality</strong>: Dervin and Nilan were concerned about the assumption of predictability with respect to human information processing. While IS professionals need to be reminded of this, organizational requirements normally expect a certain degree of predictability to ensure acceptable functionality. Normally these would be expressed in terms of the objectives set for the information worker, with corresponding performance criteria used to assess how well those objectives were being met.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">For example, a common form of human information processing involves making decisions based on the information (both atomised and rich) available. In this case the subjective information output would be the decision, and the quality of the decisions would need to be assessed. The criteria used to base these assessments can be seen as a feedback function (another systems concept) that assesses system effectiveness and, if necessary, adjusts the process to improve quality. Figure 10 incorporates such feedback control loops for each of the information processing methods &#8211; recognising the criteria would be different for each subsystem.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img class="aligncenter" src="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/p191fig10.gif" alt="" /></p>
<div style="text-align:justify;"><strong>Figure 10: The IS model now incorporates feedback loops, which pass on performance information to quality control functions, which may lead to changes in both external process moderators and internal processes.</strong></div>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Now we have an analytical framework that is broad enough to encompass both information systems and human information processing, yet readily open to more detailed component analysis. Even so, individual components cannot now be considered in isolation. This includes not only the input and output functions of the component subsystem, but contextual effects from the system environment as well.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The <em>human information processing</em> component in Figure 10 can be broken down into behavioural components (even as subsystems in their own right), or may be better tackled using different classification schemes. Either way, subcomponents can be studied using either positivist or interpretativist research paradigms. A variety of both quantitative and qualitative methods can be used. Either single or multiple case enquiry is appropriate.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The model could serve as a framework for identifying and analysing empirical data about individual information workers in terms of their perspectives on information, their information behaviour, and their interaction with the IT-based system. The same framework would work equally well as a collective view of information workers, representing a summative perspective of information behaviour. As more is learned about the human-based system, this bottom-up approach may help determine which factors are, to a degree, generalisable, and which remain stubbornly unique.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Contextual factors (personal and environmental moderators) can be identified, prioritised and related to different subprocesses as appropriate. Useful and usable feedback (whether hard and objective or soft and subjective) can be identified, collected and employed to improve processes and the effects of the moderators.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">For example, we can return to Davenport&#8217;s three major information behaviour issues and test the framework&#8217;s usefulness.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">a) <strong>Information sharing </strong>: Davenport suggests there is insufficient voluntary, horizontal information transfer, as opposed to involuntary, vertical reporting. Where Figure 10 represents the information processing based upon the job of one information worker, improving the degree information is shared becomes a system objective. Automated sharing is normally picked up when user requirements are established. However, issues like recognition of information value, and both the ability and desire to communicate effectively will affect human information sharing. This would suggest a focus on the personal and environmental moderators of the sharing function, including say, institutional knowledge, organizational culture, and training.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">b) <strong>Information overload</strong>: Davenport notes the lack of effective filters to deal with an overabundance of available information. Here the focus needs to be on both automated filters examining the nature of the atomised data, and human filters examining both objective information from the IT-based component and rich data from elsewhere.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">c) <strong>Multiple Meanings</strong>: Davenport observes business information items may have different meanings across different functional groupings. Yet database design normally assumes singularity of meaning. Perhaps the framework could be applied at the functional grouping level. Differences in information meaning could be isolated, evaluated, and where appropriate, incorporated into the information processing, with particular attention paid to the human component &#8211; where multiple meanings can be accommodated.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">In each case above, the quality control components in Figure 10 can be used as an aid to analysing performance and instigating measures to improve performance.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">It is doubtful Dervin and Nilan had such a model (or its method of representation) in mind when outlining their <em>alternative</em> paradigm. Nor are any claims being made that this is the <em>right</em> framework for analysing either system design in general, or information behaviour in particular.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Rather, it highlights how simply theoretical constructs can be represented in a systems model, thereby lending it to further elaboration and analysis.</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">Implications for research</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The main objectives of this paper have been to:</p>
<ul style="text-align:justify;">
<li> Urge recognition of the validity of both the collective, positivist view of human information behaviour (recognising the dominant, ITCIM approach) and the individual, interpretivist view of information processing (arguably more appropriate for the HCIM approach).</li>
<li> Demonstrate the advantages of systems modelling, including its ability to be flexible (even at the paradigmatic level) and inclusive in terms of past research from disparate disciplines;</li>
<li>Provide examples of how mixed-paradigm system models of human information behaviour can be constructed and analysed, incorporating both traditional information systems and human information processing.</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Roughly paraphrasing the argument previously presented by Hartman, we could say that systems models allow us to model the flow of information, in various media, through an organization as it passes from subsystem to subsystem. At any point, the researcher can go into detail about how people respond to the information and why. This approach allows the human information behaviour researcher to <em>drill down</em> into the context of use to explain, from a human-centred point of view, the range of intervening variables that affect information use, and create observable information behaviour.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">A framework for this integration can be provided using a systems approach, as this paper has demonstrated. A model was developed in direct response to the call for IS research to incorporate paradigms more appropriate to human phenomena.</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">Implications for practice</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Further research and development of this modelling approach offers the potential of a range of benefits to the IS practitioner community, including:</p>
<ul style="text-align:justify;">
<li> Explaining why it can be difficult to translate information into productive action, providing a framework that allows practitioners to model, predict, and ultimately improve the effectiveness of this transformation process;</li>
<li> Describing and informing systems design &#8211; especially to assist in deciding when structured information, or semi-structured information using ICT as a communication medium is most appropriate;</li>
<li> Diagnose and correct problems with the use and effectiveness of information systems;</li>
<li> Provide a modelling approach that can usefully incorporate the various media and sources utilised by knowledge workers; and</li>
<li> Provide a modelling approach for the semi-structured processes and decision-making, usually at least partly supported by the outputs of information systems, which are typical of knowledge work.</li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The concepts behind systems thinking are not complex. System models are not difficult to draw and modify. Generic system models can be tailored to describe very specific situations in practice. System modelling provides a method for organizing thought and untangling complexity. It allows one to reveal what is important and hide what is not.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Finally, practitioners are used to using systems approaches for design and implementation applications. Communicating academic endeavour to industry might be easier if system models were used.</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">Limitations</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">A model can be described as &#8220;a simplified representation (or abstraction) of reality&#8221; (Turban <a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Turban">1995</a>: 42). This <em>simplicity</em> is frequently seen as a strength of modelling tools. Models and diagrams are used extensively in a wide range of fields to assist in visualising and schematising complex phenomena, ranging from object oriented software to various educational, linguistic, architectural and industrial applications (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Blackwell">Blackwell &amp; Englehardt 2002</a>).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">However, this approach does have its limitations. Simplification and abstraction, in the form of a system model, inherently involves a process of selection by the researcher. It is generally impossible to include every possible relevant factor in the model. Alternatively, over-simplification risks irrelevancy. The challenge is to find the right balance between <em>simplified</em> (for easier digestion and analysis) and <em>representation of reality</em> (for applicability and usefulness).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">If the aim of the research is to conceptualise the richness of an individual&#8217;s lived experience, or elucidate exceptions and alternatives, then an approach such as Dervin&#8217;s sense-making methodology may be more appropriate (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Cardillo">Cardillo 1999</a>); (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Cheuk">Cheuk 1998</a>). However, systems modelling does encourage a high degree of reflection and self-awareness in the process of making selections, which may partly mitigate these disadvantages.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">In a highly simplified form, (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper191.html#Midgley">Midgley 2000</a>) suggests that at the heart of system modelling is the making of system <em>boundary judgements</em>. The process of making these boundary judgements must imply a degree of separation between the subjects of the study and the system that is the object of the study. However, Midgley argues that all research paradigms require boundary judgements of some kind. Systems thinking provides a process for negotiating these boundary judgements that is very flexible. This flexibility allows a system modelling approach to be used in conjunction with a wide range of research paradigms and theoretical approaches. System model diagrams emphasise the nature of these boundary judgements.</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">Conclusion</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Both Information Systems and Information Science researchers have asserted that a shift is required in the study of human information behaviour. The IS community have lamented the frequent failure of information systems to transform precise, and unique, atomic information, as stored in a computer, into kinetic information and relevant action in organizations, yet have offered only limited explanations or solutions.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">One explanation of the problem sees a lack of attention to the human side of information processing. Davenport, and others, have argued for a human-centred approach to information processing, relegating the IT-based information system to simply one, albeit an important one, of the ways users receive, process and distribute information. In particular, information behaviour was an area highlighted as requiring more attention. It was proposed that the concept of an information system should be expanded to include human, as well as IT-based, information processing.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The positivist approach to research, reflecting practitioners&#8217; concerns over the best use of expensive IT, is dominant amongst IS academics. Dervin and Nilan, in a seminal work, asserted that a paradigm shift was required in the study of information behaviour, to embrace qualitative methods with the user at the centre.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Dervin and Nilan further argued that systems thinking ignores or sidelines the user with its emphasis on IT and quantitative methods in research. They concluded that the paradigm conflict is irreconcilable.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This paper addresses these concerns, pointing out that systems thinking does not preclude qualitative and multi-disciplinary studies, but rather should be seen as a highly effective tool for enabling such studies. To illustrate, a systems model incorporating both IT-based and human-based information processing is developed.</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">References</h2>
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<li><a id="Hartman" name="Hartman"></a>Hartman, E. (1988). <em>Conceptual Foundations of      Organization Theory</em>. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.</li>
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<li><a id="Iacono" name="Iacono"></a>Iacono, S. &amp; Kling, R.  (1987). Changing office technologies and the transformation of clerical jobs. In R. Kraut (Ed.), <em>Technology  and the transformation of white collar work</em>. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.</li>
<li><a id="Kling87" name="Kling87"></a>Kling, R. (1987). Defining the boundaries of computing      across complex organizations. In R. Boland &amp; R. Hirschheim (Eds.), <em>Critical  issues in information systems research </em>(pp. 307-362). New York: John Wiley &amp; Sons..</li>
<li><a id="Kling91" name="Kling91"></a>Kling, R. (1991). &#8220;Cooperation, coordination      and control in computer-supported work.&#8221; <em>Communications of the ACM</em> <strong>34</strong>(12), 83-88.</li>
<li><a id="Kling96" name="Kling96"></a>Kling, R. (1996). Computerization at work. In R. Kling  (Ed.), <em>Computerization and controversy: value conflicts and social choices</em> (2nd ed.), (pp. 278-308). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.</li>
<li><a id="Landauer" name="Landauer"></a>Landauer, T. (1995). <em>The trouble with computers:      usefulness, usability, and productivity</em>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</li>
<li><a id="McCreadie" name="McCreadie"></a>McCreadie, M. and Rice, R. (1999). Trends in analysing access to information. Part I: cross-disciplinary conceptualisations of access. <em>Information Processing and Management</em> <strong>35 </strong>(1), 45-76.</li>
<li><a id="Midgley" name="Midgley"></a>Midgley, G. (2000). <em>Systemic intervention:      philosophy, methodology, and practice.</em> New York, NY: Klewer Academic/Plenum.</li>
<li><a id="Schultheis" name="Schultheis"></a>Schultheis, R. and Sumner, M. (1998). <em>Management information systems: the manager&#8217;s view</em>. Boston, MA: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.</li>
<li><a id="Taylor" name="Taylor"></a>Taylor, R. (1991). Information use environments.    <em>Progress in Communication Science</em> <strong>10</strong>,  217-251.</li>
<li><a id="Turban" name="Turban"></a>Turban, E. (1995) <em>Decision support and expert systems: management support systems</em>, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</li>
<li><a id="vonBertalanffy" name="vonBertalanffy"></a>von Bertalanffy, L. (1968).  <em>General systems theory</em>. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin.</li>
<li> <a id="Wiener" name="Wiener"></a>Wiener, N. (1948). <em>Cybernetics</em>.      New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.</li>
<li><a id="Wilson" name="Wilson"></a>Wilson, T.D. (1997). Information behaviour: an interdisciplinary perspective.  <em>Information Processing and Management</em>,  <strong>33</strong>(4),  551-572.</li>
<li><a id="Winter" name="Winter"></a>Winter, M. C.,  Brown, D. H. &amp; Checkland, P. (1995). A   role for soft systems methodology in information systems development. <em>European Journal of Information Systems</em> <strong>4</strong>(3) 130-142.</li>
<li><a id="Zuboff" name="Zuboff"></a>Zuboff, S. (1988). <em>In the age of the smart machine:  the future of work and power</em>. New York, NY: Basic Books.</li>
</ul>
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		<title>Human-agent interaction from the perspective of information behaviour and usability</title>
		<link>http://byupustakawan.wordpress.com/2008/05/17/human-agent-interaction-from-the-perspective-of-information-behaviour-and-usability/</link>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 17 May 2008 17:23:33 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>byupustakawan</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Kuliah-koe]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Introduction The research project is aimed at analysis of human-agent interaction from the perspective of information behaviour, interactive aspects and system design with respect to usability contexts. We focus on the study of user aspects from socio-cognitive perspective. In our pilot study we studied interaction of users with information search agent Copernic. We would like [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=byupustakawan.wordpress.com&amp;blog=3168223&amp;post=53&amp;subd=byupustakawan&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<h2>Introduction</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The research project is aimed at analysis of human-agent interaction from the perspective of information behaviour, interactive aspects and system design with respect to usability contexts. We focus on the study of user aspects from socio-cognitive perspective. In our pilot study we studied interaction of users with information search agent Copernic. We would like to support interdisciplinary knowledge interchange and bridge user and system views. Design of systems which takes into account user behaviour and the needs supports efficiency of information search with the impact on increasing relevance of search results. We stated the following general research questions: Which processes are realized during human-agent interaction from the user&#8217;s perspective? How do respondents verbalize and conceptualize human-agent interaction? Which solutions will support human-agent interaction?<span id="more-53"></span></p>
<h2>Theoretical framework</h2>
<h3>The cognitive paradigm of information science</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Cognitive sciences have been applied in information science since 1980s. De Mey introduced the cognitive view in the Workshop on Cognitive Viewpoint (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#ing92">Ingwersen 1992</a>). The cognitive <em>turn</em> is characterized by three revolutions (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#rob92">Robertson and Hancock-Beaulieu 1992</a>): cognitive, relevance and interactive. Taylor&#8217;s model of information need creation, the ASK framework, Allen&#8217;s (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#all91">1991</a>) analysis of cognitive skills, processes and styles, poly-representation (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#ing92">Ingwersen 1992</a>, <a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#ing05">2005</a>) – all these theories and conceptual frameworks contributed to the development of the cognitive paradigm of information science. Ingwersen and Järvelin (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#ing05">2005</a>) describe the turning points involved in the cognitive view bridging system-oriented and information seeking approaches. They mention a shift from individualism to the user-driven approach. Transfer and process aspects were emphasized in the 1980s. These approaches were transformed to the holistic cognitive view. Cognitive view is reflected in the conceptions of information behaviour, the interactive approach and system design. Our aim is to synthesize these conceptions and its outcomes in our research.</p>
<h4 style="text-align:justify;">Information behaviour</h4>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Kuhlthau (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#kuh93">1993</a>) describes information behaviour as „seeking of the meaning“ and Dervin (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#der83">1983</a>) understands it as &#8216;sensemaking&#8217;. information behaviour foundations are embedded in the models of information seeking introduced by Ellis (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#ell89">1989</a>), Kuhlthau (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#kuh91">1991</a>), Wilson and Walsh (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#wil96">1996</a>). Nahl (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#nah01">2001</a>) distinguishes ACS (Affective &#8211; Cognitive &#8211; Sensomotoric) as the unit of the information behaviour and characterizes it in more detail. Wilson (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#wil06">2006</a>) introduces the activity theory as a framework relevant for information behaviour field and develops an inspiring process model of activity.</p>
<h4 style="text-align:justify;">Interactive approach</h4>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The interactive approach has been developed since research in the area of database systems was conducted. Berrypicking (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#bat89">Bates 1989</a>), interactive processes and feedback (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#fid91">Fidel 1991</a>), collaborative information retrieval and task-based analysis created consistent bases for interactive research. Episodic interaction model introduced by Belkin (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#bel95">1995</a>), Saracevic&#8217;s stratified model (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#sar97">1997</a>) or feedback model (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#spi97">Spink 1997</a>) are among the best-known interactive models. Ingwersen and Järvelin (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#ing05">2005</a>) present cognitive framework for information seeking and retrieval and analytical models representing relations of information objects, systems, interfaces and cognitive actors in the context.</p>
<h4 style="text-align:justify;">Information systems design applications</h4>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Usability engineering, socio-technical design and cognitive system engineering frameworks bridge cognitive approach with system design. Fidel and Pejtersen (<a href="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04.html#fid04">2004</a>) apply Rasmussen&#8217;s framework of cognitive work analysis, which explains &#8216;human-information interaction in the context of human work activities&#8217;. Conceptions of interface design, human-computer interaction and usability are relevant to our research problem.</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">Methods</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Our empirical research applies qualitative approach. Data collection was mediated by think-aloud method, semi-structured interviews and observations. Think-aloud protocols and interviews were recorded and accompanied by screen logging in our pilot study. We analysed the transcriptions, screen logs and observation notes. Synthesis resulted in tables, summarized model, process diagrams, description of usability aspects and further research proposal.</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">Pilot study</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The pilot study was conducted between February and the end of March, 2007. Two students from the fourth grade of Department of Librarianship and Information Science, Comenius University were selected as a sample. Advanced experience in information search and English language skills were defined as the sampling criteria. Copernic Agent Professional, a personal search agent for information professionals, was used to study human-agent interaction. CamStudio software was used to create screen recordings. Respondents were trained to think aloud during interaction in preparatory phase. The research team consisted of three researchers. One of them interviewed the respondents and asked them to think aloud when completing tasks. Another two researchers conducted observations.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The initial interview was focused on identification of respondents. Then, respondents were asked to think aloud when solving tasks related to: searching, filtering, results sorting, grouping of results, summarization, annotating, adding to favourites, tracking of results. The concluding interviews were focused on the problems that emerged during human-agent interaction, on limitations of the interface, degree of satisfaction with the agent and solution proposals.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Collected data (recordings, observations) were transcribed in text form. Later on we analysed transcriptions following defined coding scheme. Coded concepts were transferred to tables. We grouped the concepts to categories and tried to sort them in more detail. As a result the following general model was developed based on the first task.</p>
<p><img src="http://informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis/colisp04fig1.jpg" alt="" width="633" height="500" /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Activities of respondents were featured in the diagrams. Affective components of information behaviour during interaction were also recorded. Our further work will be focused on more detailed analysis of fundamental concepts, interaction and interface design. We will compare human-agent interaction of novices and professionals in further empirical research. Results from analysis will lead to the concluding conception which will be aimed at solution of usability problems connected with the agent interface and interaction. The conception will provide information useful for user-oriented interface design rising from the cognitive and affective components of information behaviour during human-agent interaction.</p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;">Acknowledgements</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The author acknowledge the VEGA SR – research task Information Use by IB in Education and Science for funding this research. I would like to express my gratitude to Jela Steinerova, Eva Kristofieova, Jan Gondol from the Department of LIS, Comenius University at Bratislava and respondents.</p>
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		<title>Accommodating the User&#8217;s Information Search Process: Challenges for Information</title>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 03 May 2008 16:35:39 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[Accommodating the User&#8217;s Information Search Process: Challenges for Information Retrieval System Designers by Carol Collier Kuhlthau Carol Collier Kuhlthau is with the School of Communication, Information and Library Studies at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, in New Brunswick. She can be reached by phone at 732/932-7916; by fax at 732/932-6916; or by e-mail [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=byupustakawan.wordpress.com&amp;blog=3168223&amp;post=46&amp;subd=byupustakawan&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<h1 style="text-align:center;"><strong><span style="font-size:18pt;">Accommodating the User&#8217;s Information Search</span></strong></h1>
<h1 style="text-align:center;"><strong><span style="font-size:18pt;"> Process: Challenges for Information<br />
</span></strong></h1>
<h1 style="text-align:center;"><strong><span style="font-size:18pt;"> Retrieval System Designers</span></strong></h1>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong></strong>by Carol Collier Kuhlthau</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><em>Carol Collier Kuhlthau is with the School of Communication, Information and Library Studies at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, in New Brunswick. She can be reached by phone at 732/932-7916; by fax at 732/932-6916; or by e-mail at </em><a href="mailto:kuhlthau@scils.rutgers.edu"><em>kuhlthau@scils.rutgers.edu</em></a></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The model of the information search process (ISP) described here was developed in a series of studies of the experience and behavior of library users involved in extensive research projects and more recently people in the workplace using information for complex work-related tasks. This research, discussed in numerous publications, presentations and seminars, has had considerable impact on library services but relatively little impact on information retrieval (IR) system design. With the current interest in users and user-centered systems, the time seems right for considering the implications of this research on the design of user-centered IR systems.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This article is an introduction to the ISP for those involved in the design of information systems and services. It briefly presents the problem addressed, summarizes the research findings, discusses theoretical perspectives emerging from these findings, describes the impact on library and information services and suggests some implications for IR system design.<span id="more-46"></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This research has developed through a series of studies on the user&#8217;s perspective of information seeking in libraries. In the first study in the series, common patterns in users&#8217; experience were identified and a model of the ISP was developed. Four subsequent studies further verified and refined the model. Readers interested in studying these research findings in more depth can begin with the references in <strong>For Further Reading</strong>. A full description of the model is published in <em>Seeking Meaning: A Process Approach to Library and Information Services</em>, while strategies for guiding students in each stage in the process are presented in <em>Teaching the Library Research Process</em>. Information seeking in the workplace is discussed in my latest article in the <em>Journal of the American Society for Information Science</em> (in press.)</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>The Problem</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">People using a variety of sources of information to learn about a particular subject, complex problem or extensive issue often have difficulty in the early phases of information seeking. Even when they begin with enthusiasm and initial success, many become confused and uncertain about how to proceed after a short period of time. This is particularly noticeable with students who have been assigned a research paper, but is not characteristic of students alone. Hesitation, confusion and uncertainty in the early stages of information seeking are reported by people in all types of libraries and are noted by people engaged in complicated information seeking tasks in the work place as well. In fact, although there is no way of knowing just how many people give up after initiating a search because they become uncertain and feel confused about how to continue, I suspect the number is substantial.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This research into the user&#8217;s process of information seeking grew from my own experience with students when I was a high school librarian. I noticed a recurring problem: no matter how well students were oriented to the library and its resources, there was a common pattern of behavior when students came to the library for the first few days to begin an extensive research project. They were confused and disoriented, often expressing annoyance at the assignment, the library and themselves.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">I have come to understand that this point, when people encounter an information system early in their research, whether it be a library or other type of database, is the most difficult stage of the search process. Rather than experiencing a steady increase in confidence from the beginning of a search to the conclusion, as might be expected, a dip in confidence is commonly experienced once an individual has initiated a search and begins to encounter conflicting and inconsistent information. A person &#8220;in the dip&#8221; is increasingly uncertain until a focus is formed to provide a path for seeking meaning and criteria for judging relevance.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Recent study of the ISP in the workplace reveals that the user&#8217;s experience of the stages in the search process is related to how much the person knows about the problem and the degree of construction that needs to be undertaken during information seeking. In more routine tasks, where the goal is to answer a simple question or to monitor periodic change, people do not usually experience stages in their information seeking. However, in more complex tasks, where the goal requires considerable learning, people are likely to experience a process as described in the ISP model.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">A dip in confidence seems to be a natural stage in the ISP. In <em>Seeking Meaning,</em> I discuss how, when the ISP is viewed as a constructive process, the work of George Kelly, John Dewey and Jerome Bruner becomes pertinent. They explain similar situations in which people are actively engaged in learning. Their work then provides a useful framework for understanding the process of information seeking. Each of these theorists describes the constructive process as occurring in a sequence of stages or phases to be actively worked through by the individual in the context of the situation. Uncertainty common in earlier stages is caused by the introduction of new information that conflicts with previously held constructs.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Advances in information systems that open access to a vast assortment of resources has not eased the user&#8217;s dilemma and in many cases has intensified the sense of confusion and uncertainty. New information systems may deepen the problem by overwhelming the user with everything all at once, rather than offering a few well-chosen introductory pieces for initial exploration. Can mechanisms be developed that accommodate a range of different types of information seeking tasks from routine to complex? Can mechanisms be developed that accommodate different stages in the ISP in complex tasks?</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>Stages in the Information Search Process</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The ISP may be thought of as occurring in six stages: Initiation, Selection, Exploration Formulation, Collection and Presentation.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Common patterns of thinking, feeling and acting were found in each stage. The names of the stages represent the primary task at each point in the process. Although the sequence of tasks may appear somewhat recursive rather than strictly linear, the process proceeds from the initiation to the completion of the project.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The first stage in the ISP is <em>initiation</em>, when a person first becomes aware of lack of knowledge, information and understanding to solve a complex problem or accomplish an involved project. Feelings of uncertainty and apprehension are commonly associated with the vague or ambiguous thoughts in this early stage of information seeking. <em>Selection</em> is the second stage, when the task is to identify and select the general area or topic to be investigated. Feelings of uncertainty often give way to a brief sense of optimism after a selection has been made and there is a readiness to begin the search.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The next stage is <em>exploration</em>, which is often the most difficult stage for users and the one most misunderstood by providers of information services and designers of information systems. Feelings of confusion, uncertainty and doubt frequently increase during this time. The task is to investigate information on the general problem in order to extend personal understanding. At this stage an inability to express precisely what information is needed makes communication awkward between the user and the system. Thoughts center on becoming oriented and sufficiently informed about the topic to form a focused perspective that will guide the search and lead to accomplishing the user&#8217;s goal.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The fourth stage is <em>formulation</em>, which is the turning point of the process when feelings of uncertainty diminish as understanding increases. The task is to form a focus from the information encountered in exploration. Thoughts become more clear and defined as a focused point of view is formed. The fifth stage is c<em>ollection,</em> when interaction between the user and the system functions most effectively and efficiently. At this point the task is to gather information pertinent to the focused problem. The sixth stage is <em>presentation</em>, when the task is to complete the search and resolve the problem.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This research has revealed that people experience the process of information seeking holistically as an interplay of thoughts, feelings and actions. These studies were among the first to investigate the affective aspects, or feelings of a person, in the process of information seeking along with the more commonly studied cognitive and physical aspects. One of the more surprising findings was &#8220;the dip&#8221; described above after a search had been initiated during the exploration stage. However, this experience is also one of the most recognizable to both librarians and library users when the model is presented to them. Users tend to think that they are the only ones to experience &#8220;the dip&#8221; before they become aware that it is a common occurrence in the ISP.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">In summary, this research found that from the user&#8217;s perspective forming a focus is a central task of the early stages of the search process. Searching is a process over time rather than a single event. Searching is a holistic experience rather than just an intellectual activity. Initially, searching commonly increases uncertainty rather than reducing uncertainty.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>Uncertainty in Information Seeking</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Uncertainty, common in the early stages of any constructive process, has not been adequately addressed in the systems and services designed for information seeking. User&#8217;s uncertainty is traditionally considered a negative to be reduced as quickly as possible. Most information retrieval systems work fairly well when a problem is well defined in the collection stage of the ISP. But few are designed for a person who is learning in the exploration stage.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">An Uncertainty Principle has been developed to provide a theoretical framework for library and information services to accommodate uncertainty and lack of constructs in the early stages of the ISP. The following principle is based on the findings of the research into the user&#8217;s perspective of information seeking described above.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><em>Uncertainty Principle</em>: Uncertainty is a cognitive state that commonly causes affective symptoms of anxiety and lack of confidence. Uncertainty and anxiety can be expected in the early stages of the ISP. The affective symptoms of uncertainty, confusion and frustration are associated with vague, unclear thoughts about a topic or question. As knowledge states shift to more clearly focused thoughts, a parallel shift occurs in feelings of increased confidence. Uncertainty due to a lack of understanding, a gap in meaning or a limited construction initiates the process of information seeking.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The Uncertainty Principle is expanded by six corollaries: process, formulation, redundancy, mood, prediction and interest. These are further explained and discussed in <em>Seeking Meaning</em>. Can this principle be applied to the design of information retrieval systems? If we think of uncertainty as a sign of the beginning of innovation and creativity the goal of IR design shifts considerably. Can systems be designed that do not close the person down too quickly – that are sufficiently open to accommodate exploring and formulating?</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>Impact on Library and Information Services</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">These research findings have had important implications for library and information services and have had considerable impact on development of user-centered services. Many librarians are aware of process, and the term <em>process</em> is common in library vocabulary. Library services that formerly concentrated solely on the physical attributes of information seeking, such as locating and circulating materials, are attending to the more cognitive and affective attributes of using information for solving problems, for learning and for seeking meaning. For example, reference librarians who have become aware of stages in the ISP describe important changes in the way they view students and faculty who approach the reference desk. They now listen for an indication of the stage in the process of the user and particularly note when someone is &#8220;in the dip&#8221; and needs some extra help to explore for learning in order to formulate a research focus. They are especially careful not to give too much too soon and to assist in pacing the use of resources by suggesting strategies for exploring information to form a focus for research.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Librarians planning instructional sessions describe being more cautious about offering one-shot sessions where students are expected to learn everything at once. Instead they are accommodating the user&#8217;s constructive process by giving a series of instructional sessions spread over a period of time aimed at different tasks in the stages of the ISP. Once aware of the ISP, teachers also change the way they design assignments to give more time for exploring and formulating. They are acknowledging the learning process and finding new ways to access and evaluate the construction process of students.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>Zone of Intervention</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Once librarians become aware of the process of information seeking, they find new ways of intervening with users. The notion of a zone of intervention, introduced in <em>Seeking Meaning</em>, describes a time when or an area where the user needs the help of another to move ahead, a concept based on Vygotsky&#8217;s zone of proximal development. Identifying when intervention is needed and determining what mediation and instruction are appropriate is the librarian&#8217;s professional task and is important for IR system designers to consider as well. Intervention into areas where an individual is self-sufficient is not only unnecessary but may be intrusive and annoying. However, mediation into areas where individuals cannot proceed on their own, or can advance only with great difficulty, is enabling and enriching. The area where a person can do with assistance what he or she cannot do alone is the zone of intervention.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The zone of intervention varies from person to person and from time to time. For some it simply involves pointing out one source in response to a single factual request. For others it encompasses extensive collaboration in the ISP. Five zones of intervention are described in <em>Seeking Meaning</em> along with corresponding levels of library service. The diagnostic task is an important professional skill for designing library and information services. Can the concept of zones of intervention and levels of mediation be applied to designing IR systems? Are IR systems presently designed to work at all levels of intervention or just on simple levels?</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>Implications for Information Retrieval and Information System Design</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Although this research has had considerable impact on library and information services, there has been little impact thus far on design of IR systems. In fact the concept of process in the holistic sense that the user experiences seems to be somewhat outside of the paradigm of IR. User-centered information systems call for a broad vision of users as people actively engaged in tasks rather than the narrow view of information searchers at the time of interface with the system. The following concepts emerging from this research may be useful for designing information retrieval systems that support innovation, creativity and learning.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><em>Concept of Process</em>. The first and foremost concept emerging from this work has been the concept of process. In many cases, information seeking is more than source location and fact-finding or even question answering and problem solving. Ongoing studies have revealed a complex inquiry process that involves learning from a variety of inconsistent and even incompatible sources. This view of information seeking as a process in which a person is actively constructing a new understanding from the information encountered, has some important implications for the way systems are designed. Exploration and formulation within the information search process are essential considerations for developing systems that enable the user&#8217;s constructive process. For example, browsing traditionally considered a haphazard and insignificant approach to information seeking is being reconsidered for its potential as a strategy in the early stages. Participants in the study of the ISP in the workplace explain that they are looking for a new angle to present rather than just reporting on facts they are finding.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><em>Uncertainty</em>. Uncertainty is another concept that emerges from this research. There is a marked contrast between information systems that are built on a principle of order and certainty, and the individual&#8217;s profound experience of uncertainty in the early stages of the information search process. These findings indicate the need for considering uncertainty as a natural, essential characteristic of information seeking rather than regarding the reduction of uncertainty as the primary objective of information seeking. Uncertainty is a concept for information retrieval design that offers insight into the user&#8217;s quest for a personal perspective within the process of information seeking, what I have called &#8220;formulating a focus.&#8221; When uncertainty is accepted as an important concept many other related corollary concepts become apparent.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">One is the notion of the <em>relationship between uniqueness and redundancy of information</em>. At the beginning of an information seeking process we can expect that the likelihood of encountering uniqueness (new information) will be high and redundancy (familiar information) to be low. As the process progresses and the person learns more about the problem there is likely to be more of a balance between the two types of information. Finally, at the close of the process we can expect that the ratio may be reversed with uniqueness low and redundancy high. Therefore, uncertainty may be associated with high uniqueness and confidence with high redundancy. This concept may lead to new ways of thinking about relevance judgments.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Another concept related to uncertainty is the notion of the <em>mood or stance of an individual in the process of seeking information</em>. At the beginning of an information seeking process an invitational mood is most appropriate for opening the individual to new ideas. At the close of the process, an indicative mood might be more productive for leading the individual to summarize, organize and present existing ideas. However, this may be counterintuitive for the more uncertain one feels the more likely he or she is to take an indicative approach with prescriptive steps for guidance. Can information retrieval systems be designed to incorporate the concept of stance to assist users through the ISP?</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><em>Interest </em>is another concept associated with uncertainty. At the beginning of the process, when uncertainty decreases, interest frequently increases along with personal knowledge. These critical shifts in interest and the relation to motivation and incentive may be important factors to consider in designing user-centered information retrieval systems.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><em>Complexity</em>. The concept of complexity is important for understanding the experience of uncertainty in the information search process. Findings suggest that it is an individual&#8217;s perception of the complexity of a task that determines his or her experience of process and degree of uncertainty. Since it is the perception of complexity, and not the complexity inherent in the task, tasks cannot be labeled in advance as complex or simple. A task in which considerable construction is required is likely to be considered to have a higher degree of complexity than a task that is considered routine, regardless of the inherent complexity of the task. This more subjective approach to determining complexity may prove productive for developing systems that respond to a wide range of users in a variety of tasks. Task complexity is emerging as an important concept for understanding why and when the stages of the ISP are experienced by users in contrast to information seeking that is a more straightforward source-location and question-answering endeavor. In the workplace complex tasks that lead to innovation are often seen as time consuming and disruptive to routine. Can task complexity inform designers of IR systems?</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><em>Enough</em>. The concept of enough involves the deceptively simple question of, &#8220;What is enough?&#8221; What is enough may have been a fairly straightforward notion when a person could gather all there was to know on a problem or topic in a contained collection. The concept of enough is quite a different matter in the present information environment. Understanding &#8220;what is enough&#8221; is essential for making sense of the information available to us. Enough relates to seeking meaning in a quantity of information by determining what one needs to know and by formulating a perspective on which to build. The ISP treats the concept of enough as what is enough to make sense for oneself within a context and to accomplish the task at hand. By applying the concept of enough in each stage of the process, systems may be developed that</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-family:Symbol;">·</span><span> </span>accommodate the ability to recognize an information need,</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-family:Symbol;">·</span><span> </span>explore information on a general topic,</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-family:Symbol;">·</span><span> </span>formulate a specific focus,</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-family:Symbol;">·</span><span> </span>gather information pertaining to a specific focus, and</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-family:Symbol;">·</span><span> </span>prepare to share what has been solved, learned or created.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>Challenges for IR System Design</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">This research addresses information use as well as information seeking. It does not stop at locating information, but is concerned with interpreting and using it. These ideas challenge some of the underlying principles of IR system design, as they questioned the foundation of information provision in libraries. This research becomes more pertinent as researchers and system designers begin to turn their attention to the consideration of more user-centered approaches. User-centered systems will need to accommodate users beyond the interface, as people seeking information to create, learn and innovate in the context of their daily lives.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>For Further Reading</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Kuhlthau, C. C. (in press). The role of experience in the information search process of an early career information worker: Perceptions of uncertainty, complexity, construction and sources. <em>Journal of the American Society for Information Science.</em></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Kuhlthau, C. C. (1993a). <em>Seeking meaning: A process approach to library and information services</em>. Norwood,  NJ: Ablex.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:12pt;">Kuhlthau, C. C. (1994a). <em>Teaching the library research process </em>(2nd ed.). Metuchen,  NJ: Scarecrow Press.</span></p>
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		<title>PUSAT DOKUMENTASI DAN INFORMASI ILMIAH &#8211; LEMBAGA ILMU PENGETAHUAN INDONESIADALAM MENDUKUNG KEBUTUHAN INFORMASI MASYARAKAT  MELALUI LAYANAN PERPUSTAKAAN</title>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 03 May 2008 16:33:09 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[PUSAT DOKUMENTASI DAN INFORMASI ILMIAH &#8211; LEMBAGA ILMU PENGETAHUAN INDONESIA DALAM MENDUKUNG KEBUTUHAN INFORMASI MASYARAKAT MELALUI LAYANAN PERPUSTAKAAN Oleh Sri Hartinah LATAR BELAKANG Tantangan yang dihadapi dunia Perpustakaan, dokumentasi dan informasi di masa sekarang dan mendatang berbeda dari tantangan di masa lampau , sebagaimana perkembangan dunia ilmu, pengetahuan dan teknologi yang sangat pesat. Penyediaan informasi [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=byupustakawan.wordpress.com&amp;blog=3168223&amp;post=45&amp;subd=byupustakawan&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;">PUSAT DOKUMENTASI DAN INFORMASI ILMIAH &#8211; LEMBAGA ILMU PENGETAHUAN INDONESIA </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;text-indent:36pt;" align="center"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;">DALAM MENDUKUNG KEBUTUHAN INFORMASI </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;text-indent:36pt;" align="center"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;">MASYARAKAT <span> </span>MELALUI LAYANAN PERPUSTAKAAN </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;text-indent:36pt;" align="center"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;">Oleh </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;text-indent:36pt;" align="center"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;">Sri Hartinah</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;text-indent:36pt;" align="center"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">LATAR BELAKANG</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Tantangan yang dihadapi dunia Perpustakaan, dokumentasi dan informasi di masa sekarang dan mendatang berbeda dari tantangan di masa lampau , sebagaimana perkembangan dunia ilmu, pengetahuan dan teknologi yang sangat pesat. </span><span style="font-family:Arial;">Penyediaan informasi maupun kegiatan dokumentasi yang dilaksanakan oleh Pusat Dokumentasi, Pusat Informasi maupun Perpustakaan diharapkan selalu mengikuti perkembangan ketersediaan informasi maupun perkembangan kebutuhan informasi pemakai/pengguna/masyarakat informasi.</span><span id="more-45"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Keanekaragaman kreatifitas, inovasi serta kecepatan penyediaan informasi diperlukan bagi pusat dokumentasi, pusat informasi serta perpustakaan.<span> </span>Selain itu diperlukan Sumber Daya Manusia (SDM) yang professional dalam mengelola dan melayani masyarakat pemakai.<span> </span>SDM dituntut<span> </span>profesional, dalam hal ini adalah cepat tanggap terhadap perkembangan kebutuhan dengan menyajikan informasi yang dibutuhkan, mengikuti perkembangan sarana teknologi informasi dan telekomunikasi, tidak berorientasi pada kebutuhan finansial semata, tidak cepat menyerah terhadap pandangan orang terhadap profesi yang dimiliki.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Sebagai pusat dokumentasi dan informasi, PDII (Pusat Dokumentasi dan Informasi Ilmiah)-LIPI yang dikenal sebagai layanan publik berusaha untuk mereformasi layanan kepada masyarakat khususnya dalam penataan koleksi serta pemenuhan kebutuhan informasi kepada pengguna<span> </span>terutama<span> </span>untuk layanan perpustakaan</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dengan adanya program nasional yaitu Warung Informasi Teknologi yang tujuannya adalah untuk kemudahan akses informasi bagi masyarakat khusunya di daerah, PDII melakukan disseminasi informasi antara lain pengiriman database bibliografi koleksi PDII dalam bentuk CD-ROM ke waintek-warinek yang ada di daerah juga ke instansi di daerah yang membutuhkan.<span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dengan demikian, diseminasi ini akan berdampak pada permintaan penggandaan pustaka yang dibutuhkan pengguna dari hasil pencarian bibliografi yang ada di CD-ROM.<span> </span>Untuk itu sangat penting keakuratan data bibliografi dengan pustaka yang ada di koleksi perpustakaan PDII.<span> </span>Tulisan ini diharapkan dapat bermanfaat bagi pengelolaan informasi di perpustakan atau pusat informasi yang memberikan layanan kepada masyarakat serta pengguna data bibliografi PDII.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Permasalahan</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span></span></p>
<ol style="margin-top:0;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Dari layanan yang diberikan kepada pengguna perpustakaan PDII baik      yang datang langsung maupun melalui surat, keluhan yang disampaikan adalah      <strong><em>tidak      diperolehnya bahan pustaka yang diperlukan</em></strong> padahal <strong>data tersedia</strong> di Katalog secara      online <em>(Online Public Access      Cataloque )</em></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Ada perbedaan</span></strong><span style="font-family:Arial;"> pendapat antara      pengelola perpustakaan maupun pengguna pada umumnya <strong>tentang sistem layanan</strong> koleksi yang dilakukan untuk melayani      pengunjung.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Kebutuhan pengguna</span></strong><span style="font-family:Arial;"> perpustakaan akan <strong>informasi tesis/disertasi</strong> </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Dengan perkembangan dunia perpustakaan yang kini dikenal dengan      berbagai istilah yakni library digital, perpustakaan maya (Virtual      library) dsb. Apakah perpustakaan PDII yang saat ini berlokasi di Jl Gatot      Subroto no 10 “<strong>masih banyak      dikunjungi<span> </span>penggunanya?”</strong><span> </span></span></li>
</ol>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Tujuan<span> </span></span></strong></p>
<ol style="margin-top:0;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Melaksanakan Akurasi koleksi perpustakaan melalui akurasi data <em>database</em> dan bahan pustaka yang ada      di koleksi </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Mengetahui pendapat pengguna perpustakaan tentang sistem layanan untuk      koleksi buku umum dan koleksi tesis/disertasi serta laporan penelitian</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Mengetahui persepsi pengguna tentang informasi tesis/disertasi</span></li>
</ol>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Metode </span></strong></p>
<ol style="margin-top:0;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><em><span style="font-family:Arial;">Pembenahan </span></em><span style="font-family:Arial;">koleksi dan akurasi      data perpustakaan secara bertahap <em></em></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Survei kepada pengunjung perpustakaan terhadap system layanan serta pemakaian      buku, tesis dan laporan penelitian</span></li>
</ol>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">PERPUSTAKAAN PDII</span></strong></p>
<p style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Merupakan salah satu “sub bidang” di Bidang Informasi PDII-LIPI yang memberikan sarana layanan informasi dan kelengkapan rujukan berupa bahan cetak dan terekam, untuk memperlancar kegiatan penelitain dan kegiatan lainnya bagi peneliti LIPI maupun instansi lain bagi peneliti, dosen, konsultan, karyawan, mahasiswa yangmelakukan penelitian dll serta memberikan pelayanan pada masyarakat umum</span></p>
<p style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Tersedia berbagai bahan pustaka<span> </span>buku, majalah, laporan penelitian, tesis/disertasi, mikrofis/film yang ditata di perpustakaan yang menempati 3 lantai di gedung PDII-LIPI Jl. Gatot Subroto no. 10., lantai 3, 4 dan 5.</span></p>
<p style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Jasa Perpustakaan PDII menyediakan data bahan pustaka seperti tersebut di atas<span> </span>melalui jaringan komputer yang dapat diakses dengan “<em>Online Access <span> </span>Public Catalogue</em>” <span> </span>(OPAC) dengan cara sederhana dan<span> </span>sangat mudah.<span> </span></span></p>
<h4 style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-size:12pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial;">A. Cakupan Subyek </span></h4>
<p style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Mengenai Ilmu Murni (Kimia, Fisika, dll) Ilmu pengetahuan terapan (Teknik Kimia, Teknologi Pangan, dll , Ilmu-ilmu sosial, Konflik, Gender<span> </span>atau studi wanita dan anak, lingkungan hidup</span></p>
<h3 style="margin-left:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-size:12pt;line-height:150%;">B.<span> </span>Koleksi</span><span style="font-size:12pt;line-height:150%;font-weight:normal;"> </span><span style="font-size:12pt;line-height:150%;"></span></h3>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span class="CharChar"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Koleksi merupakan kebutuhan penting dalam sebuah perpustakaan. Perpustakaan<span> </span>Perpustakaan PDII<span> </span>mempunyai koleksi buku sebanyak<span> </span>45.590 judul<span> </span>dan <span> </span>data masih terus di entri, dengan <span> </span><span> </span>penambahan<span> </span>yang berasal dari pembelian, pertukaran, dan hadiah juga kegiatan dari para peneliti yang menghasilkan suatu</span></span><span style="font-family:Arial;"> informasi dalam bentuk buku, laporan, majalah, proceeding dsb.<span> </span><span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">C</span></strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">. <strong>Sistem Layanan</strong></span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Koleksi perpustakaan PDII-LIPI memberikan layanan kepada pengguna/ pengunjung perpustakaan dengan 2 sistem, sistem terbuka dan system tertutup.<span> </span><strong>Sistem terbuka</strong> dalam arti setelah mengetahui nomor pustaka yang akan dicari<span> </span>pengguna dapat langsung mengambil dan membaca pustaka tanpa harus dilayani petugas.<span> </span>Koleksi dengan system terbuka ini terutama untuk jenis dokumen buku, majalah yang didisplay dan majalah terjilid.<span> </span>Untuk <strong>sistem layanan tertutup</strong> pengguna/pengunjung perpustakaan tidak dapat mengambil sendiri tetapi harus dilayani atau diambilkan petugas.<span> </span>Koleksi dengan system tertutup diterapkan untuk koleksi jenis laporan penelitian, tesis/disertasi dan majalah yang dilanggan PDII dan belum terjilid. Untuk pengembalian pustaka pengunjung tidak diperkenankan untuk mengembalikan sendiri. </span></p>
<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">PEMBENAHAN KOLEKSI DAN AKURASI DATA </span></p>
<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Telah dilakukan akurasi data koleksi perpustakaan<span> </span>tahun 2002 -2003 dimulai dengan koleksi laporan penelitian, buku umum dan referensi, dan dilanjutkan dengan koleksi majalah. <span> </span>Sebelum dilaksanaka akurasi data pada setiap jenis dokumen dilakukan </span></p>
<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left:72pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;line-height:150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;"><span>1.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Persiapan : pengumuman pada pengunjung khususnya anggota </span></p>
<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left:72pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;line-height:150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;"><span>2.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Pembenahan koleksi terlebih dahulu, <span> </span><span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left:72pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;line-height:150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;"><span>3.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Pengecekan setiap field pada cantuman print-out database dengan setiap dokumen/pustaka di rak koleksi.<span> </span>Pengecekan ini baik keberadaan fisik, lokasi dan pelabelan. </span></p>
<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left:72pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;line-height:150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;"><span>4.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Verifikasi pustaka yang datanya tidak akurat </span></p>
<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left:72pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;line-height:150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;"><span>5.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Modifikasi data pada “database” atau<span> </span>pangkalan data</span></p>
<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left:72pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;line-height:150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;"><span>6.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Updating data di catalog (OPAC)</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Dari hasil pelaksanaan pembenahan dan akurasi data menunjukkan bahwa ada perbedaan hasil antara layanan pemakaian koleksi dengan system</span><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">terbuka</span><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">dan layanan koleksi dengan system tertutup.<span> </span>Perbandingan hasil adalah sebagai berikut</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">NO.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">SISTEM TERBUKA</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">SISTEM TERTUTUP</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">KETERANGAN</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;"> </span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;"> </span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">1</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Koleksi lebih banyak tidak teratur</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Koleksi lebih teratur dan rapi </span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;"> </span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">2</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Data yang tidak akurat lebih banyak</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Data yang tidak akurat lebih sedikit</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;"> </span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">3</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Jenis dokumen<span> </span>yang salah lokasi atau penempatan lebih banyak </span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Jenis dokumen<span> </span>yang salah lokasi atau penempatan lebih sedikit</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Karena setiap salah penempat-an langsung dapat   dilaporkan oleh petugas</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">4</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Ada sebagian koleksi yang tidak ketahuan bahwa   data di opac tidak sesuai<span> </span>dengan data   di rak<span> </span>karena pengguna langsung menuju   rak</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Ada sebagian koleksi yang tidak dimanfaatkan   pengguna</span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Disebabkan Ketidak akuratan data </span></p>
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<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;">Secara rinci hasil temuan pada akurasi data adalah:</span></p>
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<li class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Ketidaksamaan antara Kode panggil di Opac dengan       label </span></strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">buku berjumlah<span> </span>704       cantuman,<span> </span>ketidakcocokan antara       lain: lokasi dokumen, </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Sejumlah 118 cantuman buku tidak ada dalam cantuman OPAC umumnya       Prosiding/Seminar</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Pustaka yang tercantum dalam opac namun tidak ada dalam koleksi       maupun daftar peminjaman </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Duplikasi dalam cantuman di database</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Kesalahan cover dan label setelah pustaka dijilid atau dibuat       mikrofis/film</span></li>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">EVALUASI HASIL PEMBENAHAN DAN AKURASI DATA</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Setelah dilakukan pembenahan dan akurasi data, dilanjutkan dengan evaluasi dengan cara memberikan kuesioner kepada pengguna/pengunjung perpustakaan sebagai responden selama 2 bulan yaitu satu bulan kepada pengunjung koleksi buku dan satu bulan kepada pengunjung/pengguna koleksi laporan penelitian/tesis.<span> </span>Diperoleh responden sejumlah 658 orang untuk pengunjung laporan penelitian dan tesis/disertasi dan 478 orang untuk pengunjung koleksi buku. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial;">A. Hasil survei terhadap pengunjung koleksi Buku Umum</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Survei terhadap : 478 orang pengunjung perpustakaan selama 10 hari </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Status Pengguna</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Dari jumlah pengunjung perpustakaan PDII yang menggunakan koleksi buku umum<span> </span>10<span> </span>hari kerja berjumlah 478<span> </span>orang<span> </span>terdiri atas 60 % wanita<span> </span>dan 40 % pria, dengan status pekerjaan Mahasiswa S1 75%, Mahasiswa S2/S3 2%, Karyawan 7%, Peneliti LIPI 2% Peneliti NonLIPI 1%, Dosen 1% dan Pelajar 7%.<span> </span>Dari jumlah tersebut ternyata 44 % bukan merupakan kunjungan pertama, 26 % adalah baru pertama berkunjung ke Perpustakaan PDII, sedangkan anggota perpustakaan hanya 3 % dan bukan anggota 27 %.<span> </span><span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Layanan</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Sejak awal berdirinya perpustakaan PDII berdiri, koleksi buku umum dibuka untuk masyarakat dengan sistem terbuka, namun setelah dilakukan stock opname dan akurasi data selama 3 bulan, koleksi buku umum dibuka kembali namun dengan sistem tertutup dengan pertimbangan<span> </span>masih dalam rangka kerapian koleksi dan pembenahan.<span> </span>Kami ingin mengetahui lama petugas mengambilkan dokumen/buku, sehingga pengguna mengisi waktu yang diperlukan petugas untuk melayani.<span> </span>Dari hasil survei diperoleh bahwa waktu yang diperlukan petugas untuk melayani masing-masing 77 % 5-10 menit, 8 % 10-15 menit, 3 % 15-20% sedangkan sisanya lebih dari 20 menit.<span> </span>Pada pertanyaan yang diajukan terhadap kemudahan layanan dengan system tertutup (diambilkan petugas). 41 % pengguna setuju dan bahkan 37 % sangat setuju, sedangkan sisanya tidak setuju dan sangat tidak setuju atau kosong. Bahkan pada pertanyaan apakah petugas layanan membantu pengguna dalam memenuhi kebutuhan 32% setuju bahkan 53 % sangat setuju dan sisanya tidak setuju sampai sangat tidak setuju.<span> </span>Di samping itu 49 % pengunjung menyatakan setuju dan 23 % sangat setuju bahwa buku yang diminta dapat ditemukan oleh petugas.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Temu Kembali dokumen</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dalam penataan koleksi baik dengan system kartu katalog maupun dengan system automasi, yang paling penting adalah ditemukannya bahan pustaka yang dibutuhkan pengguna.<span> </span>Pada saat ditanyakan tentang buku yang diminta pengguna apakah ditemukan oleh petugas 49 % pengunjung menyatakan setuju dan 23 % sangat setuju bahwa buku yang diminta dapat ditemukan oleh petugas.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-size:14pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial;">B. Hasil survei terhadap pengunjung koleksi laporan dan tesis</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Status Pengguna <span> </span></span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Dari jumlah pengunjung perpustakaan PDII yang menggunakan koleksi tesis/disertasi<span> </span>dan laporan penelitian selama 22 hari kerja berjumlah<span> </span>658 orang terdiri atas 61 % wanita<span> </span>dan 39 % pria.<span> </span>Dari jumlah tersebut ternyata 71% bukan merupakan kunjungan pertama, 27% adalah baru pertama berkunjung ke Perpustakaan PDII, sedangkan anggota perpustakaan hanya 1 %.<span> </span>Tesis/disertasi dan laporan penelitian pada umumnya digunakan pengunjung perpustakaan untuk mendukung kegiatan penelitian<span> </span>dengan persentase masing-masing 81% Mahasiswa S1, 6% mahasiswa S2/S3,<span> </span>2% peneliti, 1% dosen, 1 % industri sedangkan ada yang digunakan bukan untuk penelitian yaitu 4 % karyawan dan 3 % pelajar.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Layanan</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Seperti diketahui, bahwa koleksi tesis/disertasi dan laporan penelitian dilayani dengan system tertutup atau diambilkan petugas.<span> </span>Kami ingin mengetahui lama petugas mengambilkan dokumen, sehingga pengguna mengisi waktu yang diperlukan petugas untuk melayani.<span> </span>Dari hasil survei diperoleh bahwa waktu yang diperlukan petugas untuk melayani masing-masing 69% 5-10 menit, 6 % 10-15 menit, 1 % 15-20% sedangkan sisanya lebih dari 20 menit.<span> </span>Pada pertanyaan yang diajukan terhadap kemudahan layanan dengan system tertutup (diambilkan petugas). 43 % pengguna setuju dan bahkan 47 % sangat setuju, sedangkan sisanya tidak setuju dan sangat tidak setuju atau kosong. Bahka pada pertanyaan apakah petugas layanan membantu pengguna dalam memenuhi kebutuhan 52% setuju bahkan 37 % sangat setuju.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Temu Kembali dokumen</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dalam penataan koleksi baik dengan system kartu katalog maupun dengan system automasi, yang paling penting adalah ditemukannya bahan pustaka yang dibutuhkan pengguna.<span> </span>Pada saat ditanyakan tentang tesis/disertasi dan laporan penelitian yang diminta pengguna apakah ditemukan oleh petugas, ternyata 56% setuju bahwa tesis atau laporan penelitian ditemukan petugas bahkan 29 % sangat setuju. Sisanya 6 % kurang setuju, 5 tidak tahu. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span> </span></span></strong><span style="font-family:Arial;"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Penutup </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<ul style="margin-top:0;" type="square">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Pembenahan <span>mekanisme dan alur      baik di pengolahan maupun di Jasa Perpustakaan harus tegas, tertulis dan      diketahui oleh semua petugas maupun<span> </span>pengguna yang terkait</span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Akurasi data di <span>database      pengolahan diikuti dengan akurasi data di Opac</span>, CD-Rom yang      disebarkan maupun di Web yang ditampilkan</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></li>
</ul>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Masukan Untuk Akurasi Data Di Opac Maupun Database Selanjutnya:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<ul style="margin-top:0;" type="square">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Pembenahan <span>mekanisme dan alur      baik di pengolahan maupun di Jasa Perpustakaan harus tegas, tertulis dan      diketahui oleh semua petugas maupun<span> </span>pengguna yang terkait</span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Akurasi data di <span>database      pengolahan diikuti dengan akurasi data di Opac</span>, CD-Rom yang      disebarkan maupun di Web yang ditampilkan</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Perubahan kebijakan</span><span style="font-family:Arial;"> di pengolahan atau      pangkalan data sebaiknya <span>diteruskan</span> ke Jasa Perpustakaan</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Terbitan LIPI maupun bidang Perpustakaan tidak dipinjamkan untuk      pengguna cukup dibaca atau difotokopi di tempat</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Koleksi bidang Perpustakaan disarankan untuk dilengkapi kembali dan      dipelihara pengadaannya</span></li>
</ul>
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		<title>PERPUSTAKAAN DAN PENDIDIKAN MULTIKULTURALISME*)</title>
		<link>http://byupustakawan.wordpress.com/2008/05/03/perpustakaan-dan-pendidikan-multikulturalisme/</link>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 03 May 2008 16:30:19 +0000</pubDate>
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				<category><![CDATA[Kuliah-koe]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[PERPUSTAKAAN DAN PENDIDIKAN MULTIKULTURALISME*) Oleh Agus Rifai**) I. PENDAHULUAN Pada dasawarsa terakhir, wacana multikulturalisme menjadi isu penting dalam upaya pembangunan kebudayaan di Indonesia. Hal ini menurut hemat penulis didasarkan beberapa alasan. Pertama, bahwa secara alami atau kodrati, manusia diciptakan Tuhan dalam keanekaragaman kebudayaan, dan oleh karena itu pembangunan manusia harus memperhatikan keanekaragaman budaya tersebut. Dalam [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=byupustakawan.wordpress.com&amp;blog=3168223&amp;post=44&amp;subd=byupustakawan&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center"><strong>PERPUSTAKAAN DAN PENDIDIKAN MULTIKULTURALISME*)</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center">Oleh</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center">Agus Rifai**)</p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><strong>I.</strong> <strong>PENDAHULUAN</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;"><span> </span>Pada dasawarsa terakhir, wacana multikulturalisme menjadi isu penting dalam upaya pembangunan kebudayaan di Indonesia. Hal ini menurut hemat penulis didasarkan beberapa alasan. <em>Pertama</em>, bahwa secara alami atau kodrati, manusia diciptakan Tuhan dalam keanekaragaman kebudayaan, dan oleh karena itu pembangunan manusia harus memperhatikan keanekaragaman budaya tersebut. Dalam konteks ke-Indonesia-an maka menjadi keniscayaan bahwa pembangunan manusia Indonesia harus didasarkan atas multikulturalisme mengingat kenyataan bahwa negeri ini berdiri di atas keanekaragaman budaya.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;"><span id="more-44"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;"><span> </span><em>Kedua,</em> bahwa ditengarai terjadinya konflik sosial yang bernuansa SARA (suku, agama, dan ras) yang melanda negeri ini pada dasawarsa terakhir<span> </span>berkaitan erat dengan masalah kebudayaan. Dari banyak studi menyebutkan <span> </span>salah satu penyebab utama dari konflik ini adalah akibat lemahnya pemahaman dan pemaknaan tentang konsep kearifan budaya. Menurut AlQadrie (2005), Profesor Sosiologi pada Universitas Tanjungpura Pontianak, berbagai konflik sosial yang telah menimbulkan keterpurukan di negeri ini <span> </span>disebabkan oleh kurangnya kemauan untuk menerima dan menghargai perbedaan, ide dan pendapat orang lain, karya dan jerih payah orang lain, melindungi yang lemah dan tak berdaya, menyayangi sesama,<span> </span>kurangnya kesetiakawanan sosial,<span> </span>dan tumbuhnya sikap egois serta kurang perasaan atau kepekaan sosial. Hal sama juga dikemukakan oleh Rahman (2005) bahwa konflik-konflik <span> </span>kedaerahan sering terjadi seiring dengan ketiadaan pemahaman akan keberagaman atau multikultur. Oleh karena untuk mencegah atau meminimalkan konflik tersebut perlu dikembangkan pendidikan multikulturalisme.</p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;"><span> </span><em><span style="font-size:10pt;">*)<span> </span><span> </span>Artikel Peserta Lomba Penulisan Karya Ilmiah bagi Pustakawan Tahun 2006</span></em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;"><em><span style="font-size:10pt;"><span> </span>**) Pustakawan pada Perpustakaan UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta </span></em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;"><span> </span><em>Ketiga,</em> bahwa pemahaman terhadap multikulturalisme merupakan kebutuhan bagi manusia untuk menghadapi tantangan global di masa mendatang. Pendidikan multikultural mempunyai dua tanggung jawab besar, yaitu<span> </span>menyiapkan bangsa Indonesia untuk siap menghadapi arus budaya luar di era globalisasi dan menyatukan bangsa sendiri yang terdiri dari berbagai macam budaya. Bila kedua tanggung jawab besar itu dapat dicapai, maka kemungkinan disintegrasi bangsa dan munculnya konflik dapat dihindarkan. (Suara Pembaruan: 09/09/04). Konflik antarbudaya <span> </span>yang disebut oleh Samuel P. Huntington (1993) sebagai benturan antar peradaban akan mendominasi politik global. Dalam bukunya yang terkenal, <em>The Clash of Civilization and the</em> <em>Remaking of World Order</em>, Hantington menyebutkan bahwa terjadinya<span> </span>berbagai <span> </span>konflik sosial dan etnis di berbagai belahan dunia antara lain disebabkan oleh perbedaan kebudayaan yang semakin nyata. Untuk menghindari benturan tersebut, atau setidaknya meminimalkan dampak dari benturan tersebut menurut salah seorang penulis lepas online, pemahaman tentang keanekaragaman kebudayaan, (<a href="http://www.penulislepas.com/">www.penulislepas.com</a>.)</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;"><span> </span>Beberapa uraian di atas setidaknya menggambarkan betapa pentingnya pendidikan multikulturalisme harus dilakukan, baik melalui pendidikan formal maupun non formal. Dalam kerangka ini penulis ingin melihat bagaimana pendidikan multikulturalisme dilakukan oleh perpustakaan. Dengan kata lain, bagaimana perpustakaan berperan dalam mengembangkan pendidikan multikulturalisme melalui berbagai kegiatan dan layanannya.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-27pt;"><strong>II. PENDIDIKAN MULTIKULTURALISME</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:9pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;"><span> </span>A. <strong>Pengertian Multikulturalisme</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">Multikultural berarti beraneka ragam kebudayaan. Menurut Parsudi Suparlan (2002) akar kata dari multikulturalisme adalah kebudayaan, yaitu kebudayaan yang dilihat dari fungsinya sebagai pedoman bagi kehidupan manusia. Dalam konteks pembangunan bangsa, istilah multikultural ini telah membentuk suatu ideologi yang disebut multikulturalisme. Konsep multikulturalisme tidaklah dapat disamakan dengan konsep keanekaragaman secara sukubangsa atau kebudayaan<span> </span>sukubangsa yang menjadi ciri masyarakat majemuk, karena multikulturalisme menekankan keanekaragaman kebudayaan dalam kesederajatan. Ulasan mengenai multikulturalisme mau tidak mau akan mengulas berbagai permasalahan yang mendukung ideologi<span> </span>ini, yaitu politik dan demokrasi, keadilan dan penegakan hukum, kesempatan kerja dan berusaha, HAM, hak budaya komuniti dan golongan minoritas, prinsip-prinsip etika dan moral, dan tingkat serta mutu produktivitas.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">Multikulturalisme adalah sebuah ideologi dan sebuah alat untuk meningkatkan derajat manusia dan kemanusiaannya. Untuk dapat memahami multikulturalisme diperlukan landasan pengetahuan yang berupa bangunan konsep-konsep yang relevan dan mendukung keberadaan serta berfungsinya multikulturalisme dalam kehidupan manusia. Bangunan konsep-konsep ini harus dikomunikasikan di antara para ahli yang mempunyai perhatian ilmiah yang sama tentang multikulturalisme sehingga terdapat kesamaan pemahaman dan saling mendukung dalam memperjuangkan ideologi ini. Berbagai konsep yang relevan dengan multikulturalisme antara lain adalah, demokrasi, keadilan dan hukum, nilai-nilai budaya dan etos, kebersamaan dalam perbedaan yang sederajat, sukubangsa, kesukubangsaan, kebudayaan sukubangsa, keyakinan keagamaan, ungkapan-ungkapan budaya, domain privat dan publik, HAM, hak budaya komuniti, dan konsep-konsep lainnya yang relevan.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:27pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">Selanjutnya Suparlan mengutip Fay (1996), Jary dan Jary (1991), Watson (2000) dan Reed (ed. 1997) menyebutkan bahwa multikulturalisme ini akan menjadi acuan utama bagi terwujudnya masyarakat multikultural, karena multikulturalisme sebagai sebuah ideologi akan mengakui dan mengagungkan perbedaan dalam kesederajatan baik secara individual maupun secara kebudayaan. Dalam model multikulturalisme ini, sebuah masyarakat (termasuk juga masyarakat bangsa seperti Indonesia) mempunyai sebuah kebudayaan yang berlaku umum dalam masyarakat tersebut yang coraknya seperti sebuah mosaik. Di dalam mosaik tercakup semua kebudayaan dari masyarakat-masyarakat yang lebih kecil yang membentuk terwujudnya masyarakat yang lebih besar, yang mempunyai kebudayaan seperti sebuah mosaik. Dengan demikian, multikulturalisme diperlukan dalam bentuk tata kehidupan masyarakat yang damai dan harmonis meskipun terdiri dari beraneka ragam latar belakang kebudayan.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">Mengingat pentingnya pemahaman mengenai multikulturalisme dalam membangun kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara terutama bagi negara-negara yang mempunyai aneka ragam budaya masyarakat seperti Indonesia, maka pendidikan multikulturalisme ini perlu dikembangkan. Melalui pendidikan multikulturalisme ini diharapkan akan dicapai suatu kehidupan masyarakat<span> </span>yang damai, harmonis, dan menjunjung tinggi nilai-nilai kemanusiaan sebagaimana yang telah diamanatkan dalam undang-undang dasar.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:-9pt;"><span> </span>B.<span> </span><strong>Mengembangkan Multikulturalisme malalui Pendidikan</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">Multikulturalisme sebagaimana dijelaskan di atas mempunyai peran yang besar dalam pembangunan bangsa. Indoneia sebagai suatu negara yang berdiri di atas keanekaragaman kebudayaan meniscayakan pentingnya multikulturalisme dalam pembangunan bangsa. Dengan multikulturalisme ini maka prinsip “bhineka tunggal ika” seperti yang tercantum dalam dasar negara akan menjadi terwujud. Keanekaragaman budaya yang dimiliki oleh bangsa Indonesia akan menjadi inspirasi dan potensi bagi pembangunan bangsa sehingga cita-cita untuk mewujudkan masyarakat Indonesia yang adil, makmur, dan sejahtera sebagaimana yang tercantum dalam pembukaan Undang-undang Dasar 1945 dapat tercapai.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">Mengingat pentingnya pemahaman multikulturalisme dalam pembangunan bangsa, maka diperlukan upaya-upaya konkrit untuk mewujudkannya. Kita perlu menyebarluaskan pemahaman dan mendidik masyarakat akan pentingnya multikulturalisme bagi kehidupan manusia. Dengan kata lain kita memerlukan pendidikan multikulturalisme yang dapat mengantarkan<span> </span>bangsa Indonesia mencapai keadilan, kemakmuran dan kesejahteraan masyarakat.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">Mantan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional, Malik Fajar (2004) pernah mengatakan pentingnya pendidikan multikulturalisme di Indonesia. Menurutnya, pendidikan multikulturalisme perlu ditumbuhkembangkan, karena potensi yang dimiliki Indonesia secara kultural, tradisi, dan lingkungan geografi serta demografis sangat luar biasa. Menurut Rahman (2002), Dosen dari Universitas Negeri Padang, seperti dikutip dalam Surat Kabar Kampus “Ganto”, menyebutkan bahwa berdasarkan hasil diskusi pada Pelajaran kebangsaan (PK) ke-5, merekomendasikan akan pentingnya pendidikan multikulturalisme di sekolah-sekolah. Pendidikan multikultur dapat diterapkan seiring dengan kurikulum sekarang yaitu kurikulum berbasis kompetensi (KBK), seperti pengenalan akan budaya-budaya setiap daerah yang<span> </span>ada di Indonesia di sekolah-sekolah. Singkatnya, revitalisasi dan optimalisasi KBK dengan menerapkan pendidikan multikulturalisme di dalamnya,” tambah pria yang juga pernah mewakili UNP pada LKTM tingkat nasional tahun lalu.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:27pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">Pentingnya pendidikan multikulturalisme sebagaimana dijelaskan di atas, tentu bukan hanya merupakan tanggung jawab sekolah-sekolah atau lembaga-lembaga pendidikan formal saja, akan tetapi tanggung jawab bersama antara pemerintah, masyarakat, keluarga, dan institusi-institusi lainnya. Dalam kerangka ini, menurut hemat penulis, perpustakaan merupakan salah satu institusi penting dalam penyelenggaraan pendidikan multikulturalisme. Hal ini didasarkan atas berbagai fungsi yang dimiliki oleh perpustakaan, baik fungsi pendidikan, sosial, informasi, maupun pelestarian kebudayaan.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">Berdasarkan dengan kegiatan pendidikan multikulturalisme di perpustakaan ini akan dibahas pada bab selanjutnya.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:27pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><strong>III. PENDIDIKAN MULTIKULTURALISME DI PERPUSTAKAAN</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><span> </span><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><span> </span>Salah satu fungsi utama suatu perpustakaan adalah fungsi edukasi atau fungsi pendidikan. Perpustakaan merupakan salah satu bentuk pusat atau lembaga pendidikan. Perpustakaan sebagai pusat pendidikan akan tergambar dari pemanfaatan perpustakaan sebagai salah satu alternatif bagi masyarakat dalam proses pembelajaran. Perpustakaan merupakan lembaga pendidikan non formal di mana seseorang, baik individu maupun kelompok dapat menggunakan perpustakaan sebagai sarana peningkatan pengetahuan dan ketrampilan<span> </span>yang diperlukan dalam kehidupan. Dengan demikian, sebagai suatu pusat atau lembaga pendidikan maka perpustakaan diharapkan dapat berperan dalam upaya meningkatkan kualitas sumberdaya manusia, yaitu mengembangkan kemampuan dan membentuk <span> </span>watak serta peradaban bangsa yang bermartabat dalam<span> </span>rangka mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa sebagaimana tercantum dalam Undang-undang Sistem Pendidikan nasional Tahun 2003.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;">
<ol style="margin-top:0;" type="A">
<li class="MsoNormal"><strong>Gerbang      Multikultural</strong></li>
</ol>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;"><strong> </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">Perpustakaan seperti ditulis oleh Greenhalgh dan Worpole (1995) merupakan suatu gerbang bagi kebudayaan secara luas (<em>a entry point to the wider culture</em>) dan sebagai gerbang kebudayaan maka perpustakaan haruslah merupakan tempat yang ‘bebas noda’ atau netral dari keberpihakan (<em>libraries is non-stigmatizing places</em>). Perpustakaan hendaknya menjadi tempat penyimpanan beragam manusia dimana seseorang dapat mengenal dan memahami beragam kebudayaan yang dimiliki oleh manusia.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">Pernyataan Greenhalgh dan Worpole tersebut sejalan dengan fungsi perpustakaan itu sendiri. Suatu perpustakaan apapun jenisnya berfungsi sebagai sarana pelestari berbagai khazanah kebudayaan manusia. Hasil-hasil karya manusia dalam berbagai jenis yang merupakan hasil budi daya manusia akan disimpan dan dilestarikan sebagai suatu khazanah (Sulistyo-Basuki, 1993). Sebagai tempat penyimpanan dan pelestari khazanah kebudayaan manusia, perpustakaan mempunyai tugas utama dalam hal penyediaan berbagai jenis subjek dan bentuknya, baik tercetak, non cetak maupun elektronik. Dengan pemahaman ini maka suatu perpustakaan akan mengumpulkan berbagai jenis hasil karya intelektual manusia sebagai suatu kebudayaan yang direkam dalam media rekam informasi. Berbagai buku, jurnal, pamlet, makalah, laporan penelitian, kaset, kaset video, disket, disk,. sampai alat penyimpan informasi elektronis lainnya merupakan sumber-sumber informasi atau koleksi perpustakaan. Sumber-sumber informasi ini berisi beragam jenis subjek yang merefleksikan aspek-aspek kebudayaan manusia.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">Pendidikan multikulturalisme sebagaimana dijelaskan di atas memerlukan pengenalan terhadap beragam kebudayaan yang dimiliki oleh umat manusia dari beragam suku bangsa, ras atau etnis, dan agama. Keragaman koleksi yang mencakup berbagai subjek dan aspek-aspeknya merefleksikan keterbukaan perpustakaan terhadap isu-isu pluralisme dan multikulturalisme. Semakin akomodatif kebijakan suatu perpustakaan terhadap berbagai sumber-sumber informasi dari beragam kebudayaan maka berarti perpustakaan tersebut telah menunjukkan kepeduliannya terhadap pendidikan multikulturalisme. Demikian pula sebaliknya, jika koleksi perpustakaan hanya terdiri dari satu jenis subjek atau mempunyai subjek yang terbatas, berarti perpustakaan tersebut kurang menyebarluaskan pendidikan multikulturalisme. Dalam kerangka pendidikan multikulturalisme ini pada dasarnya koleksi perpustakaan yang multikultural merupakan bagian dari materi pendidikan yang disediakan bagi para pemakai perpustakaan. Melalui pemanfaatan koleksi perpustakaan yang multikultural tersebut diharapkan pemakai perpustakaan mengenal dan memahami beragam kebudayaan yang dimiliki oleh umat manusia yang pada gilirannya akan tumbuh saling pengertian dan menghargai perbedaan kebudayaan di antara sesama.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">Dalam hal ini satu hal yang harus diperhatikan adalah bahwa perpustakaan tidak boleh dijadikan sarana propaganda bagi satu kebudayaan atau faham tertentu sebab hal ini akan bertentangan dengan konsep multikulturalisme. Dalam kerangka ini maka perpustakaan harus menjadi lembaga yang inklusif, dan bukan eklusif terhadap beragam kebudayaan umat manusia.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;"><span> </span></p>
<ol style="margin-top:0;" type="A">
<li class="MsoNormal"><strong>Dialog      Kebudayaan</strong></li>
</ol>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;"><strong> </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">Pendidikan multikulturalisme meniscayakan adanya dialog kebudayaan sehingga di antara keragaman kebudayaan yang ada tidak akan terjadi benturan, apalagi menjadi sumber konflik. Tibi (1996) menyatakan bahwa dialog kebudayaan merupakan cara terbaik dalam membuat saling pengertian guna menegakkan perdamaian di dunia. Kemudian, bagaimana dialog kebudayaan tersebut terjadi di perpustakaan?</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">Menurut Gates (1994), sejarah perpustakan di dunia sejak awal hingga kini telah meniscayakan bahwa perpustakaan berkaitan erat dengan cara penyimpanan atau pelestarian <em>(preserving</em>) dan pengalihan <em>(transmiting)</em> <span> </span>informasi dan pengetahuan dalam berbagai bahan dan bentuk fisiknya yang digunakan untuk berbagai tujuan. Juga, berkaitan dengan cara penyimpanan dan pengelolaan agar dapat secara mudah diakses atau digunakan oleh<span> </span>para penggunanya. Dengan pemahaman ini, berarti bahwa perpustakaan sebagai suatu institusi tidak hanya mempunyai tanggung jawab dalam hal penyediaan sumber-sumber informasi saja, akan tetapi juga bertanggung jawab terhadap penyebarluasan sumber-sumber informasi tersebut kepada masyarakat tetap. Dalam hal ini, diharapkan suatu perpustakaan dapat menyediakan berbagai layanan dan kegiatan yang dapat membuka akses seluas-luasnya bagi masyarakat terhadap kekayaan informasi; tidak hanya terbatas yang dimiliki oleh perpustakaan, akan tetapi juga yang terdapat di luar perpustakaan. Peran sebagai penyediaan akses ini pada dasarnya merupakan refleksi dari tanggung jawab perpustakaan dalam hal penyebarluasan informasi, dan sebagai bentuk kepedulian terhadap kehidupan masyarakat. Tanggung jawab perpustakaaan dalam hal penyebaran informasi tentu tidak terbatas pada pemberian layanan yang bersifat rutinitas dan cenderung bersifat pasif atau menunggu pemakai mendatangi perpustakaan, akan tetapi hendaknya dipahami sebagai suatu tanggung jawab sosial suatu perpustakaan.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">Dalam konteks pendidikan multikulturalisme maka berbagai layanan dan kegiatan yang diselenggarakan<span> </span>oleh perpustakaan sebagaimana dinyatakan oleh Greenhalgh dan Worpole (1995) akan menyediakan suatu dialog atau titik hubungan antara individu dengan masyarakat dengan berbagai karakteristik budaya. Hubungan atau dialog ini terjadi melalui suatu media seperti buku, majalah, film, dan sumber-sumber informasi lainnya yang tersedia di perpustakaan. Melalui penyediaan dan pemanfaatan sumber-sumber informasi yang tersedia di perpustakaan,<span> </span>para pemakai perpustakaan yang mempunyai latar belakang kebudayaan berbeda dapat mengenali sekaligus memahami berbagai kebudayaan yang dimiliki oleh suatu masyarakat lainnya.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">Di samping itu, selain melalui pemanfaatan sumber-sumber informasi, dialog kebudayaan ini dapat terjadi secara langsung di antara pemakai perpustakaan, antara satu pemakai dengan pemakai lainnya, dan antara pemakai dengan pustakawan yang memiliki kebudayaan yang berbeda. Semakin intens atau sering pemakai memanfatkan layanan perpustakaan maka semakin sering suatu dialog terjadi. Keanekaragaman atau variasi layanan dan kegiatan yang disediakan atau diselenggarakan oleh perpustakaan akan berpengaruh terhadap tingkat kualitas dari suatu dialog kebudayaan.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">Dengan semakin sering terjadi dialog, baik antara pemakai dengan sumber-sumber informasi yang tersedia di perpustakaan, antara pemakai dengan pemakai lainnya, maupun antara pemakai dengan pustakawan, diharapkan dapat berpengaruh terhadap sikap dan perilaku seseorang dalam memakai dan mempersepsikan perbedaan dan keragaman kebudayaan. Berbagai bentuk dialog tersebut diharapkan dapat menanamkan sifat toleran, tidak memaksakan kehendak dan “kebenaran” pribadinya kepada pihak lain.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;"><span> </span></p>
<ol style="margin-top:0;" type="A">
<li class="MsoNormal"><strong>Apresiasi      Budaya</strong></li>
</ol>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;"><strong> </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">Selain sebagai gerbang keanekaragaman kebudayaan dan sebagai tempat terjadinya dialog antarabudaya, perpustakaan juga merupakan tempat apresiasi kebudayaan. Keragaman koleksi perpustakaan yang multikultural yang tersusun dengan baik dan sistematis merupakan bentuk peragaan dan pameran kebudayaan. Display koleksi umum maupun koleksi terbaru perpustakaan yang terpanjang di ruang publik yang menawarkan refleksi keanekaragaman kebudayaan baik masa lalu maupun masa kini merupakan bentuk apresiasi budaya.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;"><span> </span>Disamping itu, berbagai kegiatan lain seperti pameran buku, bedah buku, lokakarya, penayangan<span> </span>film dokumenter dan kebudayaan, dan berbagai kegiatan lainnya dapat diselenggarakan oleh perpustakaan dalam rangka mengenalkan keragaman kebudayaan umat manusia. Berbagai <em>event</em> nasional maupun internasional, baik yang bersifat sosial, budaya dan keagamaan dapat menjadi <em>moment</em> terpenting dalam mengenalkan keanekaragaman kebudayaan manusia. Misalnya, pada <em>event</em> Maulid Nabi dapat<span> </span>dipamerkan buku-buku berkenaan dengan<span> </span>ketokohan dan kepribadian Nabi Muhammad SAW, demikian pula pada <em>event-event</em> keagamaan lainnya. Pada peringatan Sumpah Pemuda (28 Oktober), juga dapat digunakan sebagai sarana mengenalkan beragam kebudayaan daerah di Indonesia.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;">Berbagai kegiatan-kegiatan tersebut diharapkan dapat mengenalkan keragaman kebudayaan sekaligus untuk meningkatkan apresiasi terhadap keanekaragaman kebudayaan yang ada sebagai bagian dari kegiatan pendidikan multikulturalisme.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><strong>IV. KESIMPULAN DAN PENUTUP</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">Dengan melihat uraian di atas maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa sebenarnya perpustakaan merupakan suatu lembaga yang secara potensi dapat menumbuhkembangkan semangat pluralisme dan multikulturalisme. Koleksi perpustakaan merupakan gerbang multikultural yang secara jelas menggambarkan beragam kebudayaan umat manusia. Melalui koleksi perpustakaan para pemakai perpustakaan mulai mengenal keragaman kebudayaan manusia untuk mencapai pemahaman dan pemaknaan terhadap perbedaan. Selanjutnya, melalui gerbang ini, para pemakai kemudian masuk dan berdialog dengan beraneka ragam kebudayaan, baik melalui pemanfaatanan koleksi maupun melalui serangkaian Layanan dan kegiatan perpustakaan sehingga diharapkan akan tumbuh semangat dan sikap untuk menghargai keragaman dan perbedaan kebudayaan yang ada.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center"><strong>DAFTAR PUSTAKA</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:right;" align="right">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-36pt;">Alqadrie, Syarif Ibrahim. 2005. <em>Sosialisasi Pluralisme dan Multikulturalisme Melalui</em> <em>Pendidikan.</em> <a href="http://www.damandiri.or.id/file/ernibab2.pdf.Diakses">http://www.damandiri.or.id/file/ernibab2.pdf. Diakses</a> tanggal 24  September 2006</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-indent:-36pt;">Fajar, Malik. 2004. <em>Mendiknas: Kembangkan Pendidikan Multikulturalisme</em>. <a href="http://www.gatra.com/2004-08-11/artikel.php?id=43305">http://www.gatra.com/2004-08-11/artikel.php?id=43305</a>. Diakses tanggal 24 September  2006</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-36pt;">Gates, Jean Key. 1994. <em>Guide to the Use of Libraries and Information Source</em>. New York: McGraw-Hill.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-36pt;">Geger. <em>Mengkomposisikan Integrasi sebagai Fondasi Multikulturalisme.</em> <span style="text-decoration:underline;"><a href="http://www.penulislepas.com/more.phd?id=D775">http://www.penulislepas.com/more.phd?id=D775</a> 0 1 0 M</span>. Diakses tanggal 24  September 2006.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-36pt;">Greenhalgh, Liz &amp; Ken Worpole. 1995, <em>Libraries In A World Of Cultural Change</em>. London: UCL. Press.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-36pt;">Harian Suara Pembaharuan. 9 September 2004. <em>Tanggung Jawab Besar Pendidikan</em> <em>Multikultural.</em> <a href="http://www.sampoernafoundation.org/content/view/212/48/lang,id/">http://www.sampoernafoundation.org/content/view/212/48/lang,id/</a>. Diakses tanggal, 24  September 2006</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-36pt;">Huntington, Damuel. P. 2000. <em>Benturan antarperadaban dan masa depan politik dunia.</em> Yogyakarta: Qalam.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-indent:-36pt;">Rahman. 2005. <em>Pentingnya Pendidikan Multikultur Atasi Konflik Etnis</em>. <a href="http://www.ganto-online.com/index.php?option=com">http://www.ganto-online.com/index.php?option=com</a> <span style="text-decoration:underline;">content&amp;tast=view&amp;id=55&amp;Itemid=73.</span> Diakses tanggal 24 September 2006.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-36pt;">Sulistyo-Basuki. 1993. <em>Pengantar Ilmu Perpustakaan</em>. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-36pt;">Suparlan, Parsudi. 2002. <em>Menuju Masyarakat Indonesia yang Multikultural</em>. <a href="http://www.scripp.ohiou.edu/news/cmdd/artikel-ps.htm">http://www.scripp.ohiou.edu/news/cmdd/artikel-ps.htm</a>. Diakses tanggal 24 September  2006.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-36pt;">Tibi, Bassman. 1996. “Moralitas Internasional Sebagai suatu Landasan Lintas-Budaya”. Dalam <em>Agama dan Dialog Antar Peradaban</em>. Jakarta: Paramadina.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-36pt;">Undang-undang Republik Indonesia No. 20 Tahun 2003 Tentang <em>Sistem Pendidikan</em> <em>Nasional.</em> Jakarta: Cemerlang.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:36pt;text-align:justify;"><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;">
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span></p>
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		<title>Perpustakaan dalam Praktek Knowledge Enabler :Perspektif Pustakawan</title>
		<link>http://byupustakawan.wordpress.com/2008/05/03/perpustakaan-dalam-praktek-knowledge-enabler-perspektif-pustakawan/</link>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 03 May 2008 16:27:03 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>byupustakawan</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Kuliah-koe]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Perpustakaan dalam Praktek Knowledge Enabler : Perspektif Pustakawan Oleh : Drs. Hartono, SS, MHum *) Abstrak Tulisan ini membahas berbagai upaya peran pustakawan dalam memberdayakan pengetahuan (knowledge enabler). Masih terlalu prematur bila konsep knowledge enabler dapat diterapkan perpustakaan tradisional yang berbasis konvensional. Perpustakaan tradisional merupakan penyedia utama sumber daya informasi dihadapkan pada tantangan baru untuk [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=byupustakawan.wordpress.com&amp;blog=3168223&amp;post=43&amp;subd=byupustakawan&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="MsoTitle" style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-size:18pt;font-weight:normal;">Perpustakaan dalam Praktek Knowledge Enabler :</span></p>
<p class="MsoSubtitle" style="text-align:center;">Perspektif Pustakawan</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:&quot;"><span> </span></span></strong><em><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:&quot;">Oleh : Drs. Hartono, SS, MHum *)</span></em></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-size:9pt;">Abstrak</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;"><span style="font-size:9pt;">Tulisan ini membahas berbagai upaya peran pustakawan dalam memberdayakan pengetahuan <em>(knowledge enabler).</em> Masih terlalu prematur bila konsep<span> </span>knowledge enabler dapat diterapkan perpustakaan tradisional yang berbasis konvensional. Perpustakaan tradisional merupakan penyedia utama sumber daya informasi dihadapkan pada tantangan baru untuk menyediakan informasi yang relevan dan tepat waktu serta berasal dari banyak sumber.<span> </span>Tantangan baru pustakawan dalam kontek pemberdayaan pengetahuan,:(1) kurang memiliki pengetahuan bisnis <em>(core bisnis)</em> (2) pustakawan tidak memikili kemampuan untuk bergerak secara bersamaan dalam ruang lingkup informasi(3) pustakawan tidak memiliki jiwa kemandirian <em>(entrepreneurship)</em> (4) kurang memiliki kemampuan manajerial. Pustakawan sebagai subyek yang dapat memberdayakan pengetahuan dengan mengeksplorasi konsep manajemen pengetahuan <em>(knowledge management)</em> untuk diterapkan dilingkungan perpustakaan. Dilingkungan perpustakaan, manajemen pengetahuan mampu meningkatkan peran pustakawan secara substansial untuk mendudkung program intitusi perpustakaan.Upaya untuk memberdayakan pengetahuan dapat dapat dilakukan (1) meningkatkan kemampuan dalam teknologi informasi yang memadai (2) mengembangkan komunikasi ilmiah <em>(science communication), (3) </em><span> </span>menumbuhkan jiwa kewirausahaan (<em>entreprenuership)</em> dan <em>core bisnis.</em><span> </span>(4) meningkatkan kompetensi nanajerial dan kepemimpinan<span> </span><em>(leadership)</em> berbasis informasi.</span><span id="more-43"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong>A.<span> </span>Pendahuluan</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;">Perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi informasi dewasa ini antara lain ditandai perubahan perilaku dalam pencarian informasi <em>(information seeking)</em> yang berdampak bagi lembaga-lembaga yang bergerak dalam bidang jasa informasi dan perpustakaan. Perpustakaan sebagai lembaga yang bertugas menyimpan, mengolah dan mendistribusikan informasi dituntut agar mampu memberdayakan pengetahuan dengan menggali potensi yang dimiliki perpustakaan.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;">Kemajuan teknologi informasi menjanjikan kemudahan dalam manajemen pengetahuan <em>(knowledge management)</em> terutama bagi lembaga dalam bidang pengelolaan informasi secara elektronis termasuk perpustakaan. Perpustakaan sebagai salah satu penyedia informasi <em>(information provider)</em> harus berjalan seiring dengan pesatnya kemajuan teknologi informasi dan kebutuhan informasi penggunanya. Bila dahulu fungsi perpustakaan lebih berkonsentrasi pada penyediaan informasi dalam bentuk fisik seperti dokumen tercetak dengan dilengkapi sistem katalog kartu, maka kini dengan berkembangnya teknologi informasi perpustakaan dituntut menyediakan sumber-sumber informasi dalam bentuk elektronik yang syarat dengan pengetahuan tak terstruktur.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;">____________________</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><em><span style="font-size:10pt;line-height:150%;">*)<span> </span>Penulis adalah Pustakawan Perpustakaan Nasional RI</span></em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;">Teknologi internet yang merupakan bagian integral dari kehidupan sehari-hari membuat pada perilaku masyarakat pencari informasi mengalami banyak perubahan.<span> </span>Sumber daya elektronik yang tersedia melalui internet menjadi sasaran pertama bagi para pencari informasi. Perpustakaan tradisional merupakan penyedia utama sumber daya informasi dihadapkan pada tantangan baru untuk menyediakan informasi yang relevan dan tepat waktu serta berasal dari banyak sumber.<span> </span>Pustakawan dituntut secbagai<span> </span>subyek yang dapat memberdayakan pengetahuan <em><span style="line-height:150%;">(knowledge enabler)</span></em><span style="line-height:150%;"> </span><span> </span>dengan mengeksplorasi konsep manajemen pengetahuan untuk diterapkan dilingkungan perpustakaan.<em></em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong><span style="font-size:11pt;line-height:150%;"><span> </span></span></strong><span style="line-height:150%;">Tulisan ini mencoba menggali kembali fenomena yang telah lama berkembang, yang sangat bersentuhan dengan informasi dan pengetahuan dewasa ini.<span> </span>Pustakawan sebagai subyek pemberdaya pengetahuan mampu mengembangkan konsep manajemen pengetahuan.<span> </span>Sesuai dengan latar belakang profesi penulis sebagai pustakawan <em>(librarian)</em> maka konsep manajemen ini diarahkan pada peran pustakawan<span> </span>fungsional yang<span> </span>berada dalam<span> </span>organisasi perpustakaan.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong>B.<span> </span>Konsep Knowledge Management</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;">Konsep pemberdayaan pengetahuan <em>(knowledge enabler)</em> pada hakikatnya adalah merupakan praktek pada konsep manajemen pengetahuan (<em>knowledge management).</em> Konsep manajemen pengetahuan berasal dan berkembang didunia bisnis, diterapkan dengan tujuan untuk meningkatkan dan memperbaiki pengoperasian perusahaan dalam rangka meraih keuntungan kompetitif dan meningkatkan laba. Manajemen pengetahuan digunakan untuk memperbaiki komunikasi diantara manajemen puncak dan diantara para pekerja untuk memperbaiki proses kerja, menanamkan budaya berbagai pengetahuan, dan untuk mempromosikan dan mengimplementasikan system penghargaan berbasis kinerja</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span>Di dalam berbagai literatur, terutama pada awal berkembangnya pemanfaatan internet pada tahun 1990an, yang menjadi pendorong utama berkembangnya penerapan manajemen pengetahuan. Seperti telah disebutkan sebelumnya, h</span><span>ingga saat ini definisi manajemen pengetahuan masih beragam di antara para penulis. Perbedaan tersebut disebabkan oleh sulitnya untuk membedakan secara tegas antara informasi dan pengetahuan. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span>Pemahaman konsep pengetahuan dan informasi menimbulkan berbagai penafsiran berbeda-beda. Para ahli dibidang informasi menyebutkan bahwa informasi adalah pengetahuan yang disajikan kepada seseorang dalam bentuk yang dapat dipahami; atau data yang telah diproses atau ditata untuk menyajikan fakta yang mengandung arti. Sedangkan pengetahuan berasal dari informasi yang relevan yang diserap dan dipadukan dalam pikiran seseorang. Sedangkan pengetahuan berkaitan dengan apa yang diketahui dan dipahami oleh seseorang. Informasi cenderung nyata, sedangkan pengetahuan adalah informasi yang diinterpretasikan dan diintegrasikan. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;">Menurut Koina dalam Siregar (2005) manajemen pengetahuan adalah suatu disiplin yang mempromosikan suatu pendekatan terintegrasi terhadap pengidentifikasian, pengelolaan dan pendistribusian semua asset informasi suatu organisasi. Sedangkan Laudon (2002) manajemen pengetahuan berfungsi meningkatkan kemampuan organisasi untuk belajar dari lingkungannya dan menggabungkan pengetahuan dalam suatu organisasi untuk menciptakan, mengumpulkan, memelihara dan mendiseminasikan pengetahuan organisasi tersebut. Teknologi informasi memainkan peranan penting dalam manajemen pengetahuan sebagai pemungkin proses bisnis yang bertujuan yang bertujuan untuk menciptakan, menyimpan, memelihara dan mendiseminasikan pengetahuan</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;">Menurut Kim yang dikutip Siregar (2005) bahwa p<span>engetahuan adakalanya dikategorikan sebagai terstruktur, tidak terstruktur, eksplisit atau implisit. Jika pengetahuan diorganisasikan dan mudah didiseminasikan disebut pengetahuan terstruktur. Pengetahuan yang tidak terstruktur dan dipahami, tetapi tidak dengan jelas dinyatakan adalah pengetahuan implisit. Pengetahuan implisit juga disebut <em>tacit</em> (dipahami tanpa dikatakan), yaitu keahlian dan pengalaman pekerja yang belum didokumentasikan secara formal Untuk mengkonversi pengetahuan implisit ke dalam pengetahuan eksplisit, pengetahuan tersebut harus diekstraksi dan diformat. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span> </span></p>
<h1 style="line-height:150%;"><span>C.<span> </span>Penerapan Knowledge Enabler<span> </span>pada Perpustakaan </span></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span>Pada prinsipnya manfaat dari konsep manajemen pengetahuan adalah untuk meningkatkan kinerja perpustakaan. Manajemen pengetahuan dapat dijadikan sebagai pemicu agar pustakawan lebih inovatif dan kreatif dalam menyiasati cakupan muatan elektronik yang harus dicakup dalam konsep perpustakaan elektronik/digital yang telah dikembangkannya selama ini. Masih banyak muatan pengetahuan eksplisit yang belum tersedia dalam bentuk elektronik yang sesungguhnya dibutuhkan oleh para pengguna perpustakaan. Pustakawan juga harus berupaya mengidentifikasi pengetahuan implisit dan mengembangkan sistem yang diperlukan untuk menanganinya. Walaupun hal yang disebutkan terakhir bukan pekerjaan yang mudah, tetapi prakarsa ke arah itu harus ditumbuhkan dan sedapat mungkin diimplementasikan.<span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span>Seperti telah disebutkan di atas, manajemen pengetahuan di lingkungan perpustakaan dapat dikembangkan dan diimplementasikan sebagai perluasan prakarsa perpustakaan elektronik. Bagi perpustakaan yang telah mengembangkan perpustakaan elektronik selama ini, yang diperlukan adalah mengintegrasikan konsep manajemen pengetahuan dalam hal pemerolehan, pengorganisasian, pemeliharaan, dan pendistribusian pengetahuan termasuk pengetahuan informal, tidak terstruktur, dan eksternal yang menyangkut lembaga induknya. Perpustakaan yang belum memiliki perpustakaan elektronik harus mulai mengembangkannya kalau masih tetap ingin dipandang sebagai penyedia informasi dan pengetahuan yang utama.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span>Untuk itu, berbagai perangkat pendukung yang diperlukan harus dipersiapkan termasuk organisasi dan kebijakan yang harus ditetapkan pada tingkat institusi induk perpustakaan. Didalam organisasi perpustakaan harus terdapat satu bagian atau satu tim yang menangani pengorganisasian dan penyediaan pelayanan manajemen pengetahuan. Bagian atau tim ini sebaiknya diintegrasikan dengan pelayanan perpustakaan elektronik dengan cakupan muatan yang lebih luas tidak hanya terbatas pada proses pendigitalisasian dokumen cetak yang diterima oleh perpustakaan. Dengan suatu kebijakan organisasi induk, sejumlah naskah elektronik dari berbagai jenis dokumen, yang selama ini tergolong kelabu, dapat mengalir ke perpustakaan dan dapat segera dimuat pada <em>situs web</em> seperti yang telah dilakukan oleh sejumlah perpustakaan selama ini. </span>Sebagai cara untuk meningkatkan kualitas perpustakaan, maka pustakawan sudah selayaknya menguasai pengetahuan sistematis <em>(eksplisit)</em> maupun pengetahuan yang tidak terstruktur <em>(tacit</em>).<span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span>Selain itu, perpustakaan harus aktif mengidentifikasi berbagai pengetahuan yang diciptakan di lingkungannya baik yang merupakan karya perorangan/kelompok maupun karya institusional. Dilingkungan organisasi perpustakaan karya perorangan/kelompok termasuk antara lain: disertasi dan tesis, makalah, baik yang dipresentasikan dalam suatu pertemuan ilmiah maupun yang ditulis untuk didokumentasikan di perpustakaan;<span> </span><em>handout</em>; artikel jurnal yang diterbitkan di perpustakaan sendiri; laporan penelitian; laporan pengabdian kepada masyarakat; artikel surat kabar, bulletin dan laporan berkala internal; monograf dan proposal penelitian.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height:150%;"><strong>D.<span> </span>Perspektif<span> </span>Pustakawan</strong></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="line-height:150%;">Mencermati kondisi pustakawan dalam memberikan layanan perpustakaan dan infromasi melalui pengamatan dan berbagai diskusi, ada<span> </span>dua faktor sebagai<span> </span>alasan untuk mengatakan, bahwa citra pustakawan<span> </span>belumlah menggembirakan antara lain faktor internal dan faktor eksternal.</p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="line-height:150%;">Ditinjau dari faktor internal antara lain (1) pustakawan masih berkutat pada pelayanan konvensional dengan menggunakan sistem layanan tradisional (2) masih rendahnya kualitas sumber daya manusia/pustakawan, baik dari kualitas teknis maupun kualitas fungsional. Dari segi kualitas teknis pustakawan banyak dijumpai pustakawan yang belum memiliki kemampuan teknis berkomunikasi, manajerial, penguasaaan teknologi informasi dan bahasa asing. Dari segi kualitas fungsional meliputi dimensi kontak dengan pemakai, sikap, perilaku, hubungan internal pustakawan (3) terbatasnya sarana penelusuran yang tersedia dalam bentuk abstrak, isi buku, teks penuh <em>(fulltext)</em> atau dalam bentuk review.<span> </span>Sedangkan masalah eksternal antara lain (1) Perpustakaan belum memiliki komitmen dalam mengembangkan pustakawan sehingga pemberdayaan perpustakaan diseluruh Indonesia mengalai kesulitan. (2) masih rendahnya jiwa kemandirian <em>(entrepreneurship).</em> <strong></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;">Mencermati perkembangan manajemen pustakawan dan kaitannya dengan kompetensi pustakawan menurut<span> </span>Hakrisyati Kamil (2005) bahwa pustakawan Indonesia pada umumnya memiliki keterbatasan antara lain <img src='http://s0.wp.com/wp-includes/images/smilies/icon_sad.gif' alt=':(' class='wp-smiley' /> 1) kurang memiliki pengetahuan bisnis (2) pustakawan tidak memikili kemampuan untuk bergerak secara bersamaan dalam ruang lingkup informasi, organisasi dan sasaran organisasi<span> </span>(3) Kemampuan kerjasama sebagai dalam kelompok dan juga kepemimpinannya tidak memadai untuk posisi strategis<span> </span>dan (4) kurang memiliki kemampuan manajerial.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong> </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong> </strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><strong>E.<span> </span>Pustakawan dalam Praktek Knowledge Enabler</strong></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="line-height:150%;">Dalam lingkungan organisasi perpustakaan manajemen pustakawan dilihat sebagai komunikasi ilmiah dan proses penyampaian informasi harus diberi nilai tambah dengan mengorganisasikan pengetahuan yang diciptakan dan dikemas diluar perpustakaan.<span> </span>Perpustakaan harus dijadikan penerbit pengetahuan bagi masyarakat pengguna.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><em>Pertama</em>, pustakawan berperan sebagai fasilitator utama dalam berbagai pengetahuan, dengan menciptakan budaya dan memelihara infrastruktur yang diperlukan untuk mengoperasikan manajemen pengetahuan.<span> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><em>Kedua,</em> pustakawan berperan dalam mengambil manfaat dari konsep manajemen pengetahuan dengan tujuan untuk meningkatkan kinerja perpustakaan. Manajemen pengetahuan dapat dijadikan sebagai pemicu agar pustakawan lebih inovatif dan kreatif dalam menyiasati sakupan elektronik yang harus dicakup dalam konsep perpustakaan elektronik yang telah dikembangkannya selama ini. Masih banyak muatan pengetahuan eksplisit yang belum tersedia dalam bentuk elektronik yang sesungguhnya dibutuhkan oleh para pengguna perpustakaan.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><em>Ketiga,</em> pustakawan juga harus berupaya mengidentifikasi pengetahuan <em>eksplisit</em> dan mengembangkan sistem yang diperlukan untuk menanganinya dengan mengembangkan pengetahuan tak terstruktur<span> </span>(<em>tacit)</em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%;"><em>Keempat,</em><span> </span>pustakawan harus segera mengambil prakarsa untuk mengeksplorasi potensi informasi dan pengetahuan yang terdapat dilingkungannya masing-masing dan mengembangkan system untuk penanganannya, termasuk penyiapan sumber daya manusia, organisasi, infrastruktur teknologi informasi, dan infrastruktur hukum yang diperlukan untuk itu.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span>Solusi yang harus dipenuhi terhadap pustakawan dalam memberdayakan pengetahuan antara lain</span><em> : Pertama</em><span>, pustakawan harus dapat</span><em> </em>meningkatkan kemampuan dalam teknologi informasi yang memadai. <em>Kedua,</em> mengembangkan komunikasi ilmiah <em>(science communication) </em>bagi sesama pustakawan<em>. Ketiga, </em>menumbuhkan jiwa kewirausahaan (<em>entreprenuership)</em> dan <em>core bisnis</em>.<span> </span><em>Keempat</em>, pustakawan diharapkan mampu meningkatkan kompetensi manajerial dan kepemimpinan berbasis informasi.<em></em></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText3"><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;line-height:150%;">Penutup</span></strong><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;line-height:150%;"></span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;"><span>Manajemen pengetahuan menjajikan suatu perubahan yang berfokus pada pengembangan dan penggunaan teknologi informasi untuk meningkatkan efisiensi dan efektifitas suatu organisasi. Manajemen pengetahuan menawarkan suatu peluang bagi profesional informasi dan perpustakaan untuk menjadikan diri mereka relevan terhadap tuntutan jaman. Walaupun masih banyak masalah di sekitar manajemen pengetahuan, tetapi konsep yang ditawarkannya dapat dijadikan sebagai titik tolak bagi pustakawan untuk lebih berperan secara substansial dalam menyediakan seluruh pelayanan informasi dan pengetahuan bagi pengguna perpustakaan. Pustakawan harus segera mengambil prakarsa untuk mengeksplorasi potensi informasi dan pengetahuan yang terdapat di lingkungannya masing-masing dan mengembangkan sistem untuk penanganannya, termasuk penyiapan sumber daya manusia, organisasi, infrastruktur teknologi informasi, dan infrastruktur hukum yang diperlukan.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent2" style="margin-left:0;text-indent:36pt;line-height:150%;">Apa yang penulis kemukakan didalam tulisan ini merupakan paparan penulisan ilmiah sehingga dapat digunakan sebagai bahan masukan untuk memaksimalkan peran dan fungsi pustakawan dalam melayani layanan kepada masyarakat. Penulis menyadari, bahwa untuk melakukan suatu perubahan paradikma kepustakawanan apalagi menyangkut<span> </span>pemberdayaan pengetahuan tidaklah semudah membalik telapak tangan, karena itu memerlukan tekad dan komitmen yang kuat dari pustakawan sendiri serta dukungan nyata dari organisasi perpustakaan.</p>
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent:36pt;"><span style="font-family:&quot;">Sudah selayaknya organisasi perpustakaan sebagai lembaga informasi menjadikan model bagi dirinya sendiri, sebagai pelatih <em>(trainner)</em> bagi<span> </span>dirinya sendiri. Oleh karena itu perlu membenahi diri sekaligus memiliki komitment yang mantap dalam memberdayakan pengetahuan semaksimal mungkin. Semoga dengan pemahaman konsep pemberdayaan pengetahuan (kenowledge enabler) sebagai moment yang dapat menumbuhkan peran pustakawan dalam menoreh kedepan sebagai lembaga informasi<span> </span>yang dapat memuaskan<span> </span>tuntutan kebutuhan informasi dan selalu dekat dihati masyarakat.</span></p>
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		<title>NATIONAL INFORMATION LITERACY SURVEY</title>
		<link>http://byupustakawan.wordpress.com/2008/05/03/national-information-literacy-survey/</link>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 03 May 2008 16:22:02 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>byupustakawan</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Kuliah-koe]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[NATIONAL INFORMATION LITERACY SURVEY ACRL Information Literacy Web Site Maintained and developed by the Information Literacy Advisory Committee Last updated: 2007-04-19 16:38:46.703 April 19, 2007 CONTENTS Executive Summary Background The Survey Instrument Demographics Analysis of Responses Conclusions and Recommendations Executive summary Executive summary When defining information literacy the respondents relied heavily on the American Library [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=byupustakawan.wordpress.com&amp;blog=3168223&amp;post=42&amp;subd=byupustakawan&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center"><strong>NATIONAL INFORMATION LITERACY SURVEY</strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center"><strong><span style="font-size:9pt;font-family:Arial;">ACRL Information Literacy Web Site </span></strong><strong><span style="font-size:9pt;font-family:Arial;"><br />
<strong><span style="font-family:Arial;">Maintained and developed by the Information Literacy Advisory Committee</span></strong></span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center"><span style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:Arial;">Last updated: 2007-04-19 16:38:46.703 April 19, 2007</span></p>
<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
<p><a href="../artikel%20perpustakaan/06-04-2008/ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht#summary"><strong>Executive Summary</strong></a><br />
<a href="../artikel%20perpustakaan/06-04-2008/ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht#background"><strong>Background<br />
</strong></a><a href="../artikel%20perpustakaan/06-04-2008/ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht#surveyinstrument"><strong>The Survey Instrument<br />
</strong></a><a href="../artikel%20perpustakaan/06-04-2008/ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht#demographics"><strong>Demographics</strong></a><br />
<a href="../artikel%20perpustakaan/06-04-2008/ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht#responses"><strong>Analysis of Responses</strong></a><br />
<a href="../artikel%20perpustakaan/06-04-2008/ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht#conclusions"><strong>Conclusions and Recommendations</strong></a></p>
<h2><a name="summary"></a>Executive summary</h2>
<h2>Executive summary</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">When defining information literacy the respondents relied heavily on the American Library Association’s definition of information literacy and included basic elements of the Standards for Information Literacy Competency for Higher Education. We can also interpret that the Standards are widely accepted and that there is a general desire to make sure students gain the skills that meet these standards.<span id="more-42"></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Librarians are spearheading the campus discussions with groups outside the library while at the same time they implement programs within the library. Others on campus have joined in the dialog but have not been quick to adopt programs. Although some institutions have a formal charge to include information literacy this does not necessarily correspond to establishing specific information literacy requirements. This underscores the multiplicity of efforts for teaching information literacy.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">It is too early to tell. Most respondents were just beginning to develop programs, were initiating dialogs across their campuses. Many of the respondents to question 13 on the impact of information literacy stated that they had not gotten to an assessment stage yet. Many comments to the various questions indicated that they expected positive results in the future.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Whether public or private, comprehensive or community colleges, no matter the type of institution, the inclusion of information literacy depends on the institution&#8217;s goals &#8211; focused on teaching students and not focused on research.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Background</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">More than 5 years have passed since the first survey of information literacy programs at higher education institutions was conducted.  Cosponsored by the National Forum on Information Literacy, the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) in collaboration with the Commission on Higher Education (CHE) of the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools and the Western Accreditation Commission for Senior Colleges and Universities (WASC), the survey report can be found as an appendix to Patricia Senn Breivik&#8217;s book &#8220;Student Learning in the Information Age&#8221; (American Council on Education/Oryx Press, 1998).   Our intent is to continue to refer back to that effort and enhance those findings with current information.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The five years since the survey have seen tremendous national activity in information literacy.  Foremost within ACRL is the creation in 1997 and the extraordinary impact of the Institute for Information Literacy with its Immersion Program for librarian professional development, institutional best practice and community partners initiatives. More recently two efforts stand out, the ALA Special Presidential Committee on Information Literacy Community Partnerships and the development, endorsements, publication, and distribution of the <em>Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education</em>. Not only have these efforts been widely applauded but also their impact can be seen in the preponderance of panels, workshops and presentations at professional conferences both within libraries and within higher education.</p>
<p>The higher education accrediting associations, both general and disciplinary, are aware of and embracing information literacy and are either considering or have adopted information literacy standards.  The impact at the campus level is seen in resolutions adopted by Academic Senates, the establishment of information literacy requirements in the curriculum, as well as numerous and varied examples of the reform of general education to include information literacy.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">With this in mind the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) and the American Association of Higher Education (AAHE) conducted a new survey to update recent campus activities in information literacy programming in higher education institutions.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The Survey Instrument</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">The instrument was developed by the consultants with input from librarians nation-wide who have developed or were developing similar instruments for local or regional distribution. Several drafts were sent to the ACRL Executive Director, Althea Jenkins, who also gathered input from AAHE collaborators. The final draft was circulated to a small sample. The final draft was then sent to the ACRL offices for any further input, revision and ultimate distribution. The actual distribution of the survey and initial receipt of the responses was left to the staff at the <a href="http://www.virginia.edu/surveys/">Center for Survey Research at the University of Virginia</a>. The original emails were sent on May 2<sup>nd</sup>, 2001.  A reminder notice was sent 2 weeks later. With only 18 days turnaround time, and an extension until the end of May, we were very pleased to see the number of returns. The Consultants were given as contacts for the survey and they received a number of calls regarding access, cut-off date, and submission difficulties. Also one question asked the respondents to send information to the Consultants. Question 5 asked for mailed documentation identifying the institutionÕs formal charge or documentation that mandates the teaching of information literacy. The fact that three separate groups, the ACRL office, the Consultants and the Center for Survey Research were all responsible for aspects of the survey made this a somewhat cumbersome process.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Responses were submitted electronically by using a web-based survey form. 710 institutions or 26% responded to the survey. Compilation of data used 664 of these responses as the others were duplicate or invalid submissions.  These figures are comparable to the 1994 survey where 834 or 20% of the 3236 institutions responded.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Demographics</p>
<p>As seen in the following chart the four-year institutions comprise the majority of the responses. Institutions were also classified according to the Carnegie Classification system.</p>
<p><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!../../../../../acrlbucket/infolit/surveycharts/chart1.xml"><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="color:blue;"> Chart one: Institutions Responding by Carnegie Classification type</span></span></a></p>
<table class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse:collapse;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border:1pt solid windowtext;width:159.25pt;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="212" valign="top">Carnegie Classification:</td>
<td style="width:152.45pt;border:1pt 1pt 1pt medium solid solid solid none windowtext windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="203" valign="top">Number of respondents</td>
<td style="width:131.1pt;border:1pt 1pt 1pt medium solid solid solid none windowtext windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="175" valign="top">Percentage of total</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:159.25pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="212" valign="bottom">Community College</td>
<td style="width:152.45pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="203" valign="bottom">178</td>
<td style="width:131.1pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="175" valign="bottom">27%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:159.25pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="212" valign="bottom">Comprehensive</td>
<td style="width:152.45pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="203" valign="bottom">133</td>
<td style="width:131.1pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="175" valign="bottom">20%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:159.25pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="212" valign="bottom">Four Year Private</td>
<td style="width:152.45pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="203" valign="bottom">184</td>
<td style="width:131.1pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="175" valign="bottom">28%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:159.25pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="212" valign="bottom">Four Year Public</td>
<td style="width:152.45pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="203" valign="bottom">59</td>
<td style="width:131.1pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="175" valign="bottom">9%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:159.25pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="212" valign="bottom">Other</td>
<td style="width:152.45pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="203" valign="bottom">6</td>
<td style="width:131.1pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="175" valign="bottom">1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:159.25pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="212" valign="bottom">Research &amp; Doctoral</td>
<td style="width:152.45pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="203" valign="bottom">99</td>
<td style="width:131.1pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="175" valign="bottom">15%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:159.25pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="212" valign="bottom">Total</td>
<td style="width:152.45pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="203" valign="bottom">664</td>
<td style="width:131.1pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="175" valign="bottom">100%</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><br />
Figure One: Respondents by Type of Institutions </span></p>
<p><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!../../surveycharts/chart2.cfm"><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="color:blue;">Chart Two: Respondents by Accrediting Association</span></span></a></p>
<p><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!../../surveycharts/chart3.cfm"><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="color:blue;">Chart Three: Respondents by State</span></span></a></p>
<p>In terms of the size of the responding institutions we have the following chart:</p>
<p>In terms of the size of the responding institutions we have the following chart:</p>
<table class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse:collapse;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border:1pt solid windowtext;width:221.4pt;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">Population in Full Time Equivalent Students</td>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:1pt 1pt 1pt medium solid solid solid none windowtext windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">Total Respondents</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">No answer</td>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">17</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">To 166</td>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">151</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">1025-2070</td>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">167</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">2075-5010</td>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">165</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">5066-49000</td>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">164</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt none solid solid 0 windowtext windowtext;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">TOTAL</td>
<td style="width:221.4pt;border:medium 1pt 1pt medium none solid solid none 0 windowtext windowtext 0;padding:0 5.4pt;" width="295" valign="top">664</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h2></h2>
<h2><a name="responses"></a>Analysis of Responses      <a href="../artikel%20perpustakaan/06-04-2008/ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht#top"><!--[if gte vml 1]&gt;                    &lt;![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="/DOCUME~1/Guest/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image001.gif" border="0" alt="back to top" width="24" height="30" /><!--[endif]--></a></h2>
<p>You can start reading the<a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!surveyquestions.cfm"> complete list</a> of questions, or browse the list below.</p>
<p><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions.cfm">Question 1:  Definition of Information Literacy<br />
</a><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions.cfm">Question 2:  Campus discussions of IL<br />
</a><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions.cfm">Question 3: Inclusion in the Curriculum </a><br />
<a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions.cfm">Question 4:  Implementation of Standards<br />
</a><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions.cfm">Question 5: Mandate to teach<br />
</a><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions.cfm">Question 6: IL Requirement </a><br />
<a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions714.cfm">Question 7:  Computer Literacy<br />
</a><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions714.cfm">Question 8: Use of the Standards<br />
</a><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions714.cfm">Question 9: Implementation of Standards<br />
</a><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions714.cfm">Question 10:  Accreditation and IL<br />
</a><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions714.cfm">Question 11: Assessment of IL<br />
</a><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions714.cfm">Question 12: Teaching responsibility<br />
</a><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions714.cfm">Question 13: Impact on campus<br />
</a><a href="\Kuliah-koe\artikel%20perpustakaan6-04-2008\ACRL%20-%20Survey%20Intro.mht!/ala/acrl/acrlissues/acrlinfolit/professactivity/infolitsurvey/surveyquestions714.cfm">Question 14: Barriers</a></p>
<h2>Acknowledgments</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify;">We would specifically like to thank Hugh Thompson, ACRL Director of Publications, for his liaison work helping the Consultants by coordinating the distribution and collection of the survey results, forwarding the completed surveys to the Consultants. Within the Consultant team special thanks goes to Judith Downie, Humanities Librarian at CSUSM for her careful tracking of the survey results as they were forwarded to us, for collecting the submissions from question 5 and gathering permissions to use them here, for doing the initial number-crunching and for all her support throughout the process.  We also want to express our appreciation to all those institutions who took the time to answer the survey.</p>
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		<title>TEKNOLOGI INFORMASI DI PERGURUAN TINGGI:PELUANG DAN TANTANGAN</title>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 03 May 2008 16:20:02 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[TEKNOLOGI INFORMASI DI PERGURUAN TINGGI: PELUANG DAN TANTANGAN IQ sebuah perusahaan ditentukan oleh sejauh mana tingkat infrastruktur teknologi informasinya saling berhubungan, saling berbagi, dan membentuk struktur organisasi. Aplikasi dan data yang terisolasi, betapa pun hebatnya, dapat menjadi si pintar yang bodoh dan tidak mencerminkan perilaku korporasi yang fungsional. (Haeckel dan Nolan (1996) dalam Gates (1999) [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=byupustakawan.wordpress.com&amp;blog=3168223&amp;post=41&amp;subd=byupustakawan&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:14pt;font-family:TimesNewRoman;">TEKNOLOGI INFORMASI DI PERGURUAN TINGGI:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:14pt;font-family:TimesNewRoman;">PELUANG DAN TANTANGAN</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:&quot;">IQ sebuah perusahaan ditentukan oleh sejauh mana tingkat infrastruktur teknologi informasinya</span></em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:&quot;">saling berhubungan, saling berbagi, dan membentuk struktur organisasi. Aplikasi dan data yang</span></em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:&quot;">terisolasi, betapa pun hebatnya, dapat menjadi si pintar yang bodoh dan tidak mencerminkan</span></em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:&quot;">perilaku korporasi yang fungsional.</span></em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:&quot;">(Haeckel dan Nolan (1996) dalam Gates (1999)</span></em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:&quot;"> </span></em><span id="more-41"></span></p>
<ol style="margin-top:0;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;">Pendahuluan</span></strong></li>
</ol>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Perubahan lingkungan luar perguruan tinggi (PT), mulai lingkungan sosial, ekonomi, teknologi, sampai politik mengharuskan PT memikirkan kembali bagaimana perubahan tersebut mempengaruhi PT sebagai sebuah institusi sosial dan bagaimana PT harus berinteraksi dengan perubahan tersebut (Boyce, 2002). Kecenderungan dan masalah PT di Indonesia akhir-akhir ini sangat </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">mirip </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">dengan apa yang terjadi di Amerika akhir tahun 1970- an (Karol dan Ginsburg, 1980). Pada saat itu, PT di Amerika dihadapkan pada masalah (1) hilangnya kepercayaan pada manfaat pendidikan tinggi; (2) perubahan pola minat calon mahasiswa kepada jurusan vokasional; (3) meningkatnya persaingan antar PT; (4) membumbungnya biaya pendidikan; (5) maraknya pembukaan </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">community college </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">yang lebih dekat secara geografis dengan mahasiswa dan berbiaya rendah; (6) meningkatnya kepedulian terhadap manajemen pendidikan yang lebih efektif; dan (7) lunturnya semangat kolegialitas. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Di antara isu manajemen yang mengemuka saat itu adalah pencarian sumberdana nonkonvensional dan efisiensi, termasuk pemanfaatan teknologi informasi. Dalam literatur pendidikan tinggi terekam juga bahwa telah banyak usaha PT untuk merespon secara aktif perubahan tersebut, termasuk dengan menerapkan reorganisasi melalui </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">business process</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">reengineering </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(BPR) yang salah satunya menggunakan teknologi informasi (TI) sebagai </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">enabler </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(e.g. Adenso-Diaz dan Canteli, 2001; Bridges, 2000). </span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Dalam konteks ini, TI dapat dijadikan alat bantu efisiensi dan efektivitas pengelolaan <span> </span>PT. Dari awal harus disadari bahwa TI bukan ”obat mujarab” untuk semua masalah. Pemahaman yang salah tentang peran TI ini sering ditemui dalam banyak kasus. Akibatnya fokus diberikan pada TI dan mengabaikan hal penting lain; </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">manusia</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">proses</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, dan </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">organisasi</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> (Curry, 2002). Investasi TI yang besar jika tidak diikuti dengan perubahan ketiga hal tersebut menjadi tidak efektif. Inilah yang menyebabkan fenomena ”</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">productivity paradox</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">”, dimana investasi yang besar tidak menghasilkan manfaat yang besar juga (Brynjolfsson dan Hitt, 1998).</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Pertanyaan yang muncul kemudian adalah (1) Apa yang bisa diberikan oleh TI dalam mendukung manajemen PT?; dan (2) Tantangan dan hambatan apa yang mungkin muncul<span> </span>dalam pemanfaatan TI tersebut? Makalah singkat ini dimaksudkan untuk menjawab kedua pertanyaan tersebut.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Selanjutnya, makalah ini terbagi menjadi lima bagian. Bagian kedua akan menggambarkan karakteristik PT yang perlu diperhatikan dalam konteks implementasi TI. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Bagian selanjutnya membahas paradigma dalam memandang TI, yang dilanjutkan pada bagian keempat dengan pembahasan peluang pemanfaatan TI. Bagian kelima menjelaskan tantangan terkait dengan pemanfaatan TI di PT. Kesimpulan, pada bagian keenam, mengakhiri makalah ini.</span></p>
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<ol style="margin-top:0;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;">Karakteristik PT</span></strong></li>
</ol>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Sebelum membahas peluang yang ditawarkan oleh TI dalam manajemen PT, akan lebih baik jika karakteristik PT sebagai sebuah organisasi dibahas lebih dahulu. </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Weick (1979) – dalam Curry (2002) – menggunakan istilah </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">loosely coupled wordls </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">untuk menyebut institusi PT. </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Dalam PT, hubungan antar bagian sangat renggang. Dalam dunia seperti ini, anggota organisasi belajar dan berubah dengan cara imitasi. Hal ini tidak akan berjalan dengan baik sampai rasa saling percaya tumbuh. Karenanya, sivitas akademika harus dilihat sebagai manusia dan bukan mesin produksi. Dalam organisasi seperti ini, hubungan informal antar anggota organisasi menjadi sangat penting. </span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Cohen dan March (1974) – dalam Curry (2002) – menggunakan sudut pandang teori perilaku organisasi menyatakan bahwa PT tidak hanya inkonsisten dalam tujuannya tetapi juga banyak diwarnai konflik internal. Mereka menyebut PT sebagai </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">organized anarchies</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, sebuah organisasi yang dalam sudut pandang operasional tidak mengetahui apa yang sedang mereka lakukan. Terlepas dari setuju atau tidak dengan pernyataan ini, bekerja sebagai administrator (termasuk sebagai rektor) di PT menjadi sangat menantang. Metafor yang paling tepat untuk menggambarkan situasi ini adalah seperti memimpin pelayaran dengan kapal layar yang memanfaatkan kekuatan angin dan ombak, dan bukan seperti memimpin kapal mesin. Angin dan ombak adalah ibarat kekuatan dari bagian-bagian dan anggota organisasi yang harus disinergikan – bukan diseragamkan – untuk mencapai tujuan. </span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Dari sudut pandang yang lain, PT oleh Brookes (2003) disebut sebagai industri </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">quasicommercial</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. Di satu sisi PT ingin memberikan pelayanan pendidikan kepada masyarakat, tetapi di pihak lain, prinsip-prinsip manajemen industri komersial harus dijalankan untuk mendapatkan dana guna mendukung keberlangsungan hidupnya. Menurut Brookes, PT harus memberikan batas demarkasi tanggung-jawab, peran, aturan-main yang jelas antara wilayah yang harus dikelola dengan prinsip komersial dan wilayah yang disediakan untuk akademik. Jika ini tidak dilakukan, banyak konflik kepentingan yang muncul ke permukaan. </span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Dari perspektif yang berbeda, Lovelock (1983) mengidentifikasi lima karakteristik yang melekat pada sebuah institusi pendidikan:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<ol style="margin-top:0;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Sifat pelayanan (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">the      nature of the service act</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">). Layanan yang dihasilkan oleh      lembaga pendidikan lebih mengarah kepada hal yang bersifat </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">intangible </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">– </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">people based </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">–      daripada hal-hal yang bersifat fisik – </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">equipment      based</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Dalam proses      pelayanan juga melibatkan</span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">aksi-aksi yang </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">intangible</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">.</span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Hubungan dengan konsumen      (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">the relationship with the customer</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">). </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Layanan pendidikan melibatkan hubungan dengan      konsumen yang berlangsung lama dan bersifat formal serta dilakukan      terus-menerus (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">continuous</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">). Mahasiswa sebagai konsumen mempunyai hubungan      ”keanggotaan” (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">”membership”      relationship</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">) dengan pihak      universitas. Hal ini memungkinkan terbentuknya loyalitas konsumen yang      tinggi (pihak mahasiswa) dan peningkatan kualitas layanan terhadap      konsumen (pihak universitas).</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Tingkat kustomisasi dan      penilaian pelayanan (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">the level of customization      and jugdement in service delivery</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">). </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Tingkat kustomisasi pendidikan sangat bervariasi.      Tutorial dengan</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">peserta sedikit atau bimbingan individual akan lebih      mudah dikustomisasi daripada</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">pendidikan dengan      banyak peserta. Semakin terkustomisasinya layanan yang ditawarkan</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">menjadikan konsumen memiliki tingkat pengharapan      yang tinggi terhadap kualitas</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">layanan, terutama      terkait dengan kualitas staf pengajar. Jika demikian, masalah yang akan</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">muncul adalah kemungkinan adanya hubungan antara      kualitas dan tingkat keragaman</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">layanan. Semakin      beragam layanan yang ditawarkan, kemungkinan menurunnya kualitas</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">semakin tinggi.</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;"></span></em></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Sifat permintaan relatif      terhadap penawaran (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">the nature of demand      relative to supply</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">). Dalam bidang jasa, terdapat </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">widespread      demand </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(seperti tenaga listrik) dan </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">narrow</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">demand </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(seperti kamar hotel). Tingkat penawaran untuk memenuhi      permintaan yang berfluktuasi sangat berbeda. </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Peningkatan permintaan tenaga listrik akan lebih      mudah dan lebih cepat diatasi dengan meningkatkan kapasitas produksi, jika      masih tersediam, dibandingkan dengan peningkatan permintaan terhadap      akomodasi hotel. Dalam dunia pendidikan, permintaan terkait dengan </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">narrow demand</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. Dengan demikian penawaran akan sulit dikelola,      karena terkait dengan keterbatasan tenaga pengajar dan program studi yang ditawarkan.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Metode pelayanan (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">the      method of service delivery</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">). </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Metode pelayanan tergantung pada outlet layanan (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">single </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">atau </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">multiple</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">)      dan sifat interaksi antara konsumen dengan penyedia jasa. Konsumen harus      datang ke penyedia jasa dan sebaliknya. Dalam jasa pendidikan, umumnya      lembaga pendidikan mensyaratkan konsumen yang datang ke kampus. Namun seiring      dengan perkembangan teknologi, memungkinkan dilakukannya </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">distance learning</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">.</span></li>
</ol>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;">3. Paradigma Penerapan TI</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Kemudian, pertanyaannya adalah bagaimana TI bisa dimanfaatkan dalam organisasi dengan karakteristik tersebut di atas dengan segala masalah turunan yang muncul? Pertanyaan ini lazim diajukan. Namun, menurut Hammer dan Champy (1993) berpikir deduktif (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">deductive thinking</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">) tidak banyak memunculkan perubahan yang radikal terkait dengan pemanfaatan TI dibandingkan jika berpikir secara induktif (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">inductive thinking</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">). Orang yang berpikir secara deduktif, pertama kali mencari masalah yang akan dipecahkan dan kemudian mengevaluasi sejumlah alternatif solusi yang akan digunakan. Jika TI ingin dioptimalkan pemanfaatannya dalam organisasi maka manajer/pemimpin harus berpikir </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">induktif</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. Potensi TI harus dikenali dengan baik terlebih dahulu, kemudian mencari masalah yang mungkin dipecahkan. Masalah ini mungkin bahkan tidak dikenali sebelumnya atau tidak dianggap sebagai masalah.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Pertanyaan yang harus dimunculkan bukannya, “Bagaimana kita dapat menggunakan kemampuan TI untuk meningkatkan apa yang telah kita kerjakan?”, tetapi “Bagaimana kita dapat menggunakan TI untuk mengerjakan apa yang </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">belum </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">kita kerjakan?.” Pertanyaan yang pertama lebih terkait dengan </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">otomatisasi</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, yang juga dapat meningkatkan efisiensi, namun tidak sebaik yang dihasilkan </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">rekayasa-ulang </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">reengineering</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">) berbantuan TI. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Tabel 1 merangkum potensi teknologi informasi yang dapat mengubah aturan bisnis yang ditemukan oleh Hammer dan Champy (1993) dari studinya pada beberapa perusahaan besar dunia. </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Dengan sudut pandang yang lain, Davenport dan Short (1990) mendefinisikan 10 peran yang dapat dimainkan oleh TI, yaitu </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">transactional</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">geographical</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">automatical</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">analytical</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">informational</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">sequential</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">knowledge management</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">tracking</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, dan </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">disintermediation</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. Semua peran TI ini dapat dikontekstualisasikan dengan kebutuhan PT. Dalam bahasa yang lain, Al- Mashari dan Zairi (2000) menyatakan bahwa manfaat TI adalah pada kemampuannya yang (1) </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">enabling parallelism</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">; (2) </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">facilitating integration</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">; (3) </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">enhancing decision making</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">; dan (4) </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">minimizing points of contact</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Tabel 1. </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Teknologi dan aturan bisnis yang berubah</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"><!--[if gte vml 1]&gt;                    &lt;![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Satu hal penting yang harus ditekankan adalah bahwa strategi bisnis harus sejalan (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">wellaligned</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">) dengan strategi TI. Dalam konteks ini, kesejalanan (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">alignment</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">) antara manajemen puncak dan manajemen TI menjadi syarat utama. Henderson dan Venkatraman (1999) mengusulkan empat perspektif </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">strategic alignment </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">terkait dengan pemanfaatan TI di sebuah organisasi: (1) </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">strategy execution</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">; (2) </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">technology transformation</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">; (3) </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">competitive potential</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">; dan (4) </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">service level</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. Pespektif pertama dan kedua mengasumsikan strategi bisnis sebagai faktor pendorong, sedang pespektif ketiga dan keempat mengasumsikan strategi TI sebagai pendorong. </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Perspektif ini berasal dari asumsi hubungan yang berbeda antara </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">business strategy</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">i.e. business scope, distintive competencies, business governance</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">), </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">organizational</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">infrastructure </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">i.e. administrative structure, processes, skills</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">), </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">IT strategy </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">i.e. technology</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">scope, systemic competencies, IT governance</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">), dan </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">IT infrastructure </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">i.e. architecture,</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">processes, skills</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">). </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Peran manajemen puncak dan manajemen TI.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Dalam kaitan ini, dukungan penuh dari manajemen puncak sangat diperlukan, baik dalam penyediaan dana maupun dalam kepemimpinan (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">leadership</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">). Namun demikian, komitmen pendanaan ini harus terkontrol dengan baik. Survei yang dilakukan oleh </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">CFO</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Magazine </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">menemukan bahwa 86% </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">senior financial executives </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">mengatakan bahwa pengeluaran di bidang TI tidak cukup terkontrol (dalam David, Schuff, dan Louis, 2002). </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa manajemen </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">total cost of ownership </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(TCO) perlu diperbaiki. TCO ini meliputi </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">acquisition costs</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">control costs</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, dan </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">operations costs</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Kedua</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, kurangnya komitmen dan dukungan penuh dari manajemen puncak akan menjadi hambatan dalam pemanfataan TI di PT. </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Sikap “</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">do it to me</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">” adalah salah satu bentuk kurangnya komitmen. </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Dalam banyak studi tentang pemanfaatan TI, komitmen manajemen puncak selalu menjadi kondisi penentu keberhasilan (Bashein, Markus, dan Riley, 1994). </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Ketiga</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, kekhawatiran terhadap perubahan juga menjadi hambatan yang lain. </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Dalam banyak studi ditemukan, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">resistance to change </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">adalah salah satu penghambat perubahan (e.g. Earl dan Feeny, 1997). </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Ada banyak alasan mengapa seseorang menjadi khawatir dengan perubahan, termasuk hilangnya rasa aman dan </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">entry barrier </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">yang besar terkait dengan tingkat ketrampilan. Teori difusi inovasi dapat menjelaskan fenomena ini dengan baik, Menurut Rogers (1995) kecepatan difusi sebuah inovasi dipengaruhi oleh empat elemen, yaitu (1) karakteristik inovasi; (2) kanal komunikasi yang digunakan untuk mengkomunikasi manfaat inovasi; (3) waktu sejak inovasi diperkenalkan; dan (4) sistem sosial tempat inovasi berdifusi. Karenanya, pendekatan evolusioner seringkali lebih disukai dan lebih tepat daripada pendekatan revolusioner (Curry, 2002). Dalam konteks ini, motivasi juga menjadi isu penting. Dalam banyak kasus perubahan perusahaan, sistem penghargaan (</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">rewarding system</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">) juga diperbaiki untuk memotivasi keterlibatan semua </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">stakeholder</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Karenanya, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">keempat</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, keterlibatan semua </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">stakeholder </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">adalah tantangan lain yang harus diperhitungkan (Bashein et al., 1994). Tidak pernah ada perubahan yang mendasar tanpa keterlibatan semua pihak. Dalam hal ini, selain </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">rewarding system </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">yang baik, kepemimpinan yang baik sangat diperlukan. Pelibatan semua </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">stakeholder </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">bukan masalah mudah dalam hal ini. Tingkat kapabilitas dan kepedulian yang berbeda menjadikan pelibatan semua pihak di PT – yang </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">loosely coupled </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">– menjadi sangat berat. Karena itu, komunikasi dengan semua pihak menjadi sangat penting. Namun demikian, </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">manfaat </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">dan </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">peluang </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">penggunaan TI dalam PT haruslah yang selalu dimunculkan lebih dahulu. Komunikasi ini juga diperlukan untuk menjamin kesejalanan antara strategi bisnis dan strategi TI.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Keterlibatan semua pihak tidak hanya pada tahap awal implementasi, namun sampai proses pemanfaatan TI secara terus-menerus. Di sini, perubahan budaya juga diperlukan, yaitu menjadi budaya digital. Tanpa keterlibatan semua pihak dan perubahan budaya, manfaat TI tidak dapat dieksploitasi dengan optimal.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;">6. Kesimpulan</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Meskipun banyak perubahan yang bisa dilakukan dengan bantuan TI, namun demikian tantangan atau hambatan harus diatasi untuk menciptakan kondisi yang kondusif untuk optimalisasi pemanfaatan TI di PT. Optimalisasi pemanfaatan TI juga memerlukan perubahan pola pikir dari deduktif menjadi induktif, dan kesejalanan antara manajemen puncak (atau strategi bisnis) dan manajemen TI (atau strategi TI). Hal ini juga berarti bahwa investasi di bidang TI haruslah diikuti dengan langkah-langkah perbaikan dan penyesuaian kualitas manusia, proses, dan organisasi.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span style="font-family:&quot;">Referensi</span></strong></p>
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<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Curry, J. R. (2002). The      Organizational Challege: IT and Revolution in Higher Education. </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Educause      Review, Maret/April</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, 40-48.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Davenport</span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, T.      H., dan Short, J. E. (1990). The New Industrial Engineering: Information Technology      and Business Process Redesign. </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Sloan Management Review</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(Summer),      11-27.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">David, J. S., Schuff,      D., dan Louis, R. S. (2002). Managing Your IT Total Cost of Ownership. </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Communications      of The ACM, 45</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(1), 101-106.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Earl, M. J., dan Feeny,      D. F. (1997). Is Your CIO Adding Value? dalam Willcocks, L., Feeny, D. dan      Islei, G. (Eds.), </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Managing IT as A Strategic      Resource</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, London:      McGraw-Hill, 3-20. Edling, R. J. (2000). Information Technology in the      Classroom: Experiences and Recommendations. </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Campus-Wide      Information Systems, 17</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(2), 10-15.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Gates, B. (1999). </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Business      @ the Speed of Thought: Using A Digital Nervous System</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. New York: Warner      Books.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Haeckel, S., dan Nolan,      R. (1996). &#8216;Managing by Wire: Using IT to Transform a Business from      &#8216;Make-and-Sell&#8217; to &#8216;Sense-and-Respond&#8217;. dalam Luftman, J. N. (Ed.), </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Competing</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">in      the Information Age, Strategic Alignment in Practice<span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;font-style:normal;">, UK</span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;font-style:normal;">: Oxford University Press.</span></span></em></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Hammer, M., dan Champy,      J. (1993). </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Reengineering the      Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. New York:      HarperBusiness.</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;"></span></em></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Henderson, J. C., dan Venkatraman, N. (1999). </span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Strategic      Alignment: Leveraging Information Technology for Transforming      Organizations. </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">IBM Systems Journal, 38</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(2/3),      472-484.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Karol, N. H., dan      Ginsburg, S. G. (1980). </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Managing The Higher      Education Enterprises</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. New York: John Wiley &amp; Sons.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Kettinger, W. J., Teng,      J. C., dan Guha, S. (1997). Business Process Change: A Study of Methodologies,      Techniques, and Tools. </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">MIS Quarterly</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(Maret),      55-80.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Kock, N. F., Jr. , dan      Corner, J. L. (1997). Improving University Processes Through Computer-Mediated      Process Redesign Groups. </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Campus-Wide Information      Systems,</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;"> </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">14</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(1),      13-23.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Lovelock, C. (1983).      Classifying Services to Gain Strategic Marketing Insights. </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Journal      of Marketing Management, 47</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, 9-20.</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;"></span></em></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">McClintok, M. (1998).      Information System Management Issues in Small Colleges      and Universitas. </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Campus-Wide Information      Systems, 15</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(3), 85-90.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Peled, A. (2000).      Bringing the Internet and Multimedia Revolution to the Classroom. </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Campus-Wide      Information Systems, 17</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(1), 16-22.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Rogers, E. M. (1995). </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Diffusion      of Innovations </span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(4 ed.). New York: The Free Press. Semiawan, T.,      dan Middleton, M. (1999). Strategic Information Planning and Campus</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Information Systems      Development in Indonesia. </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">Campus-Wide Information Systems, 16</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">(2),      70-76.</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;"></span></em></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Soh, C., dan Markus, M.      L. (1995). How IT Creates Business Value: A Process Theory</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Synthesis</span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">.      Proceedings of The Sixteenth Conference on Information Systems</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">Weick, K. E. (1979). </span><em><span style="font-family:&quot;">The      Social Psychology of Organizing</span></em><span style="font-family:TimesNewRoman;">. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.</span></li>
</ul>
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		<title>POTENSI PEMAKAI DIGITAL LIBRARY DI INDONESIA</title>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 03 May 2008 16:16:04 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>byupustakawan</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Kuliah-koe]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[potensi pemakai digital library di indonesia *) Oleh Bambang Setiarso **) Abstrak Kajian bertujuan untuk mengetahui potensi pemakai perpustakaan digital bidang informasi ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi dan sumber daya informasi iptek. Data yang telah dikumpulkan secara acak meliputi : jumlah angkatan kerja, pendapatan per kapita, jumlah pegawai negeri sipil, jumlah mahasiswa, jumlah pengajar/peneliti, industri besar [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=byupustakawan.wordpress.com&amp;blog=3168223&amp;post=40&amp;subd=byupustakawan&amp;ref=&amp;feed=1" width="1" height="1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<h1>potensi pemakai digital library di indonesia *)</h1>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center">
<p class="hspasi" style="text-align:center;" align="center"><span>Oleh</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center">Bambang Setiarso **)</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center">Abstrak</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><em>Kajian bertujuan untuk mengetahui potensi pemakai perpustakaan digital bidang informasi ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi<span> </span>dan sumber daya informasi iptek. Data yang telah dikumpulkan secara acak meliputi : jumlah angkatan kerja, pendapatan per kapita, jumlah pegawai negeri sipil, jumlah mahasiswa, jumlah pengajar/peneliti, industri besar dan menengah, jumlah laboratorium,koleksi perpustakaan dan Litbang Departemen di Indonesia.</em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><em>Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahwa potensi pemakai perpustakaan digital adalah Jawa, Sumatera Utara, Sumatera Barat dan Sumatera Selatan (Kawasan Indonesia Barat); Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Utara dan Bali (Kawasan Indonesia Timur).</em></p>
<p class="bodi">
<p class="bodi">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;" align="center">Abstract</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><em>The purpose of this study is to find out the potential users of digital library in the field of Science and Technology Information (STI)<span> </span>and S&amp;T Information Resources. Data has been collected by stratified random sampling such as : the number of employees, GNP, the number of government employees, the number of students, the number of lecturers/researchers, the number of big and medium enterprises, the number of laboratory, the number of library collections, and R&amp;D departement in Indonesia.</em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><em>The study shows that the potential of digital library users are Java, North Sumatera, West Sumatera and South Sumatera (WESTERN INDONESIA); also South Sulawesi, North Sulawesi and Bali (EASTERN INDONESIA).</em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span id="more-40"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;">*) <em>Makalah yang disampaikan pada International Seminar on Digital Library</em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><em><span> </span>and Knowledge Management ,Bandung 6-7 June 2001.</em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;">**) <em>Bekerja di PDII-LIPI dan Ketua Forum Perpustakaan Khusus.</em></p>
<div class="Section1">
<p class="bodi1"><span> </span>PENDAHULUAN</p>
</div>
<p><strong><span style="font-size:12pt;font-family:&quot;"></span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Informasi Iptek adalah unsur yang sangat penting untuk menunjang penelitian dan pengembangan di bidang Iptek dan Industri, serta pembangunan pada umumnya. Informasi Iptek juga sangat diperlukan oleh berbagai pihak seperti: peneliti,dosen,mahasiswa, pemegang kebijakan atau pengambil keputusan, masyarakat industri dan umum.</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Perkembangan Iptek yang sangat cepat, diikuti pula dengan perkembangan jurnal ilmiah, yang saat ini jumlahnya di dunia mencapai 400.000 judul. Jurnal tersebut sangat dibutuhkan ilmuwan untuk mengikuti perkembangan Iptek dibidangnya masing-masing. Informasi Iptek tersebut dapat berupa artikel majalah, laporan penelitian, prosiding, buku dsb. Yang sangat berguna untuk mengikuti kemajuan Iptek di dunia. Membanjirnya informasi Iptek baik melalui media cetak (terbitan jurnal ilmiah), media elektronik (internet), CD-ROM dan sebagainya, mengharuskan kita untuk mengelola, menyajikan, memberikan</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:36pt;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">layanan, menelusur dan menyebarkannya kepada masyarakat.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Pentingya informasi Iptek, sebenarnya sudah disadari oleh semua pihak baik oleh pemegang kebijaksanaan di bidang Iptek, maupun masyarakat(Science and Technology Information) STI di Indonesia, namun ketersediaan informasi Iptek (terutama<span> </span>jurnal ilmiah asing) saat ini masih sangat terbatas. Belum lagi persoalan diseminasi jurnal ilmiah asing yang belum merata, jaringan informasi Iptek yang tidak berjalan dengan mulus, disamping penyedia informasi baik sebagai pusat informasi atau perpustakaan juga masih sangat memperihatinkan.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Beberapa upaya dan terobosan<span> </span>untuk memformulasikan konsep tentang sistem jaringan perpustakaan digital informasi Iptek<span> </span>dan pembenahan serta perbaikan sistem layanan dan koleksi telah dilakukan, namun selalu kandas dari satu konsep ke konsep lain. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Hal tersebut disebabkan terbentur pada masalah dana, prasarana dan sarana, sumber daya manusia dan lain sebagainya, pada saat dimana konsep tersebut akan diimplementasikan.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Selain itu hasil studi ini diharapkan dapat membantu para<span> </span>pemegang keputusan di bidang informasi Iptek untuk suatu perencanaan jaringan dan diseminasi informasi Iptek secara makro dan mikro. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Bagi daerah kabupaten, kajian ini diharapkan sebagai masukan untuk mengembangkan &#8220;Pusat Informasi Iptek Daerah&#8221; yang sangat berguna untuk pemberdayaan potensi SDM serta memacu penelitian potensi daerah.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui berbagai literatur sekunder, meliputi:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Perguruan Tinggi Negeri atau Swasta</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Departemen dan Non-Departemen</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Laboratorium/ Balai Penelitian</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Industri Besar dan Menengah</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Masyarakat Umum</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<h1 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">potensi pengguna dan sumber daya informasi iptek</span></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dalam memberikan gambaran tentang potensi baik pengguna STI maupun sumber daya informasi Iptek, telah dikumpulkan berbagai data yang meliputi jumlah angkatan kerja, jumlah pendapatan per kapita, jumlah PNS, jumlah mahasiswa dan pengajar, jumlah industri besar dan menengah, jumlah laboratorium, jumlah koleksi perpustakaan, serta keadaan litbang di lingkungan departemen di Indonesia.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dasar pertimbangan pengambilan data tersebut adalah pengguna informasi iptek erat kaitannya dengan jumlah penduduk berdasar tingkat pendidikan, lapangan pekerjaan, maupun tingkat pendapatan dan pengeluaran per kapita.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent2" style="margin-left:0;text-align:justify;text-indent:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent2" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1.<span> </span><span> </span>JUMLAH ANGKATAN KERJA BERDASARKAN TINGKAT PENDIDIKAN</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent2" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span></span></p>
<p class="bodi" style="margin-left:1cm;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Gambaran angkatan kerja setiap propinsi tahun 1996 dikaitkan dengan tingkat pendidikannya, terutama pada jumlah angkatan kerja yang lulus dari perguruan tinggi/universitas yang dapat dianggap sebagai “STI users” yang potensial. Diperoleh gambaran bahwa P. Jawa sangat dominan yakni lebih dari 59,26 persen dari total jumlah angkatan kerja di Indonesia. Di P. Sumatera, propinsi yang cukup dominan adalah Sumatera Utara, Aceh, dan Sumatera Barat, sedangkan untuk Indonesia bagian timur , beberapa propinsi yang dominan adalah Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Utara, dan Irian Jaya. Persebaran jumlah angkatan kerja lulusan perguruan tinggi pada tiap propinsi tahun 1996.</span></p>
<p class="bodi" style="margin-left:1cm;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="bodi" style="margin-left:28.45pt;text-indent:-28.45pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>2.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">JUMLAH ANGKATAN KERJA BERDASARKAN LAPANGAN USAHA, TAHUN 1996.</span></p>
<p class="bodi" style="margin-left:28.45pt;text-indent:-28.45pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>2.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"></span></p>
<p class="bodi" style="margin-left:1cm;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Jika dilihat keadaan angkatan kerja setiap propinsi berdasarkan lapangan usahanya, tahun 1996<span> </span>diperoleh gambaran bahwa Pulau Jawa juga dominan dilihat dari jumlah angkatan kerjanya, yaitu lebih dari 59,26 persen dari total angkatan kerja di Indonesia.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Gambaran yang sama juga terlihat bila dikaitkan dengan jumlah angkatan kerja berdasarkan lapangan usaha yaitu jumlah angkatan kerja yang bekerja pada usaha industri di pulau Jawa lebih dari 59,26 persen dari total angkatan kerja<span> </span>di Indoneia. Di P. Sumatra persebaran<span> </span>paling menonjol adalah Propinsi Sumatera Utara, sedangkan di Indonesia bagian Timur (termasuk Kalimantan) yang menonjol adalah Propinsi Kalimantan Selatan dan Sulawesi Utara. Persebaran jumlah angkatan kerja pada sektor industri setiap propinsi tahun 1996.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">3.<span> </span><span> </span>JUMLAH PENDUDUK MENURUT GOLONGAN PENGELUARAN PER KAPITA</span></p>
<p class="hspasi"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Data jumlah penduduk menurut golongan pengeluaran per kapita pada setiap propinsi di Indonesia, diperoleh dari hasil Survai Sosial Ekonomi Nasional (SUSENAS) tahun 1997, yang dilakukan oleh BPS. </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Data SUSENAS tersebut diharapkan dapat dipakai untuk menggambarkan keadaan sosial ekonomi dari demografi penduduk pada suatu waktu tertentu.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dari data<span> </span>jumlah penduduk golongan pendapatan tertinggi yaitu Rp. 8.809.315,- atau lebih dalam setahun, terlihat bahwa<span> </span>kemampuan penduduk di P. Jawa yang menonjol terdapat di Propinsi DKI Jakarta, Jawa Barat, dan Jawa Timur. Di pulau Sumatera yang cukup menonjol adalah Propinsi Sumatera Utara, Sumatera Selatan, dan Lampung. Sedangkan di Indonesia bagian Timur<span> </span>(termasuk Kalimantan)<span> </span>adalah Kalimantan Timur dan Bali. Propinsi dengan jumlah penduduk<span> </span>paling sedikit dengan golongan pendapatan ini adalah Nusa Tenggara Timur. Persebaran jumlah penduduk dengan tingkat pendapatan perkapita pada setiap propinsi, tahun 1995-1996.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">4.<span> </span>JUMLAH PEGAWAI NEGERI SIPIL (PNS) DAERAH OTONOMI YANG BEKERJA DI LITBANG DAN NON-LITBANG BERDASARKAN TINGKAT PENDIDIKAN, TAHUN 1998.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span><span> </span>Jumlah PNS yang bekerja di unit litbang dan non-litbang berdasarkan tingkat pendidikannya<span> </span>dapat memberikan gambaran riil perbedaan antara jumlah PNS yang bergerak disektor litbang dan non-litbang yang dianggap sebagai “STI users” potensial. Dapat digambarkan bahwa<span> </span>jumlah PNS di litbang yang dominan<span> </span>adalah di<span> </span>Propinsi<span> </span>DKI Jakarta, Jawa Timur, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Barat, sedangkan di luar Jawa adalah Propinsi<span> </span>Sumatera Utara, Sulawesi Selatan, Riau dan sebagainya.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">5.<span> </span>JUMLAH MAHASISWA DAN TENAGA PENGAJAR, TAHUN 1996/1997</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Selain mahasiswa, tenaga pengajar juga diasumsikan sebagai pengguna informasi Iptek, baik yang bekerja<span> </span>di PTN atau PTS<span> </span>yang potensial atau cukup penting untuk dijadikan indikator terlihat bahwa Propinsi DKI Jakarta, Jawa Barat, Jawa Tengah &amp; DIY, Jawa Timur, Sumut, Sulsel merupakan daerah-daerah yang berpotensi sebagai pengguna informasi Iptek di Indonesia.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">6.<span> </span>JUMLAH INDUSTRI BESAR/MENENGAH MENURUT ISIC BER-DASARKAN PROPINSI, TAHUN 1994-1997.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Berdasarkan data ISIC nomor 31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38 dan 39, jika dilihat dari data tahun 1994 &#8211; 1997 ternyata hanya mengalami peningkatan rata-rata antara 10% sampai 20%, sehingga tidak cukup dapat dikatakan sebagai potensi pengguna informasi Iptek.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">7. <span> </span>JUMLAH LABORATORIUM, INSTANSI DAN TENAGA PENGUJI, TAHUN 1992</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dari data jumlah laboratorium dan jumlah tenaga penguji, juga tidak dapat dikatakan cukup signifikan sebagai pengguna informasi, padahal di negara-negara maju pengelola laboratorium dan pengajar di laboratorium sangat membutuhkan informasi Iptek. Kebutuhan informasi tersebut diperlukan untuk memantau perkembangan Iptek, baik dalam bentuk majalah ilmiah, &#8220;text-book&#8221;, maupun &#8220;grey literature&#8221; dari para pakar di bidang Iptek.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">8.<span> </span>JUMLAH KOLEKSI PERPUSTAKAAN PERGURUAN TINGGI NEGERI (PTN).</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Jumlah koleksi perpustakaan PTN merupakan salah satu indikator untuk mengetahui apakah pengguna informasi sudah memanfaatkan koleksi yang ada, atau apakah jumlah koleksi yang ada sudah<span> </span>memenuhi kebutuhan pengguna informasi secara optimal. Yang dimaksud dengan koleksi adalah bahan pustaka<span> </span>yang dihimpun oleh suatu perpustakaan sebagaimana lazimnya, dalam bentuk buku maupun majalah Indonesia dan asing . Dari data yang ada, terlihat bahwa koleksi buku di perpustakaan PTN sangat bervariasi jumlahnya, sehingga sulit untuk digambarkan apakah dengan besarnya jumlah koleksi, dapat memcerminkan kepuasan pengguna informasi. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">9.<span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>LITBANG DEPARTEMEN, TAHUN 1996</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dari data tentang dimensi litbang departemen dan perpustakaan,<span> </span>dapat dikatakan bahwa jumlah peneliti yang cukup menonjol dan diangap sebagai<span> </span>pengguna informasi potensial<span> </span>adalah Balitbang Industri dan Perdagangan dan Balitbang Pertanian, sedangkan yang lain jumlah peneliti hampir berimbang (berkisar antara 5 &#8211; 328 peneliti). Jumlah buku<span> </span>hampir merata dimasing-masing Balitbang berkisar antara 7.000 judul sampai 29.000 judul, sedangkan jumlah majalah Indonesia terbanyak dimiliki oleh Balitbang Teknologi Mineral dan Lemigas, sedangkan<span> </span>majalah asing banyak dimiliki oleh Balitbang Industri dan Perdagangan, serta<span> </span>Balitbang Pemukiman.</span></p>
<p class="hspasi"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="hspasi" style="margin-left:28.5pt;text-indent:-28.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>10.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>LITBANG NON-DEPARTEMEN, TAHUN 1996</span></p>
<p class="hspasi" style="margin-left:28.5pt;text-indent:-28.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>10.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Gambaran jumlah peneliti pada Litbang Non-Departemen yang<span> </span></span></p>
<p class="hspasi"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>menonjol adalah di BPS , yaitu mencapai<span> </span>2.248 peneliti, sedangkan<span> </span></span></p>
<p class="hspasi"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>di-litbang lain berkisar antara 10 sampai 230 peneliti. Jumlah judul buku </span></p>
<p class="hspasi"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>juga sangat bervariasi dan koleksi terbanyak dimiliki oleh LIPI, yaitu<span> </span></span></p>
<p class="hspasi"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>190.000 judul. Koleksi majalah Indonesia dan asing banyak dimiliki BPS,<span> </span></span></p>
<p class="hspasi"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>masing-masing 33.600 judul &amp; 8.400 judul.</span></p>
<p class="hspasi" style="margin-left:1cm;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">11.<span> </span>SUMBER DAYA MANUSIA (SDM), TAHUN 1995 &#8211; 1997.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Data SDM digunakan untuk menggambarkan jumlah dosen yang berpendidikan S0, S1, S2, dan S3 baik di PTN maupun PTS, serta jumlah mahasiswanya, karena dianggap sebagai pengguna informasi potensial.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dari data tersebut diatas, dapat digambarkan bahwa jumlah dosen S1 di PTN sebanyak 28.437 orang dan PTS sebanyak 92.155 orang. Jumlah sebagian besar berprofesi sebagai: dosen S2 di PTN 13.205 orang dan PTS sebanyak 26.327 orang, sedangkan jumlah dosen S3 di PTN sebanyak 3.903 orang dan PTS sebanyak 5.644 orang. Jumlah mahasiswa S0 dan S1 yang terdaftar di PTN sebanyak 235.449 orang dan di PTS sebanyak 349.252 orang.</span></p>
<h1 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<h1 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">ANALISis POTENSI pemakai digital library</span></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Analisis yang diperlukan untuk membuat rancangan model demografi dari pemakai digital library yang potensial adalah analisis terhadap karakteristik penduduk secara umum sebagai sumberdaya manusia yang tercermin pada tingkat pendidikan dan kondisi sosial lainnya, dan secara khusus terhadap karakteristik sumberdaya manusia masyarakat STI dan lingkup kegiatannya yang terdapat di universitas, industri besar dan menengah, laboratorium/balai penelitian, dan departemen/non-departemen. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Pada<span> </span>Analisis 1 sampai dengan Analisis 10 yang secara umum dibagi menjadi 3 katagori berdasarkan interfal angka maksimal dan minimal dengan menggunakan analisis statistik, sehingga dapat ditentukan<span> </span>daerah-daerah potensial dari berbagai aspek seperti:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Pada<span> </span>Analisis 1, Distribusi Angkatan Kerja Menurut Propinsi, tahun 1996<span> </span>dibagi menjadi 3<span> </span>katagori :<span> </span>1)<span> </span>Kurang dari 3.000.000 ;<span> </span>2) antara 3.000.000 sampai 7.500.000 dan 3) diatas 7.500.000 meliputi propinsi : Jawa Tengah, Jawa Barat dan Jawa Timur.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Pada Analisis 2, Distribusi Pendapatan Perkapita Menurut Propinsi, tahun 1996 dikategorikan menjadi: pendapatan perkapita kurang dari Rp.2.000.000,- ; antara Rp.2.000.000,- s/d Rp.3.000.000,-; dan diatas Rp.3.000.000,-.<span> </span>Ternyata Kalimantan Tengah, Irian Jaya, Kalimantan Timur dan DKI Jakarta, termasuk katagori 3.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Pada Analisis 3 mengenai Distribusi PNS di Unit Litbang yang berpendidikan D3 keatas menurut propinsi tahun 1998, dibagi menjadi 3 kategori yaitu: kurang dari 50 orang; antara 50 &#8211; 100 orang dan diatas 100 orang meliputi propinsi: Jawa Barat, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur dan DKI Jakarta.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Selanjutnya pada<span> </span>Analisis 4 tentang Distribusi PNS di unit non-Litbang yang berpendidikan D3 keatas menurut propinsi tahun 1998, dibagi menjadi 3 kategori yaitu: kurang dari 10.000 orang; antara 10.000 &#8211; 20.000 orang dan diatas 20.000 orang. Propinsi Sumatera Utara, DKI Jakarta, Jawa Barat, Jawa Tengah dan Jawa Timur, merupakan katagori 3.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span><span> </span>Distribusi Mahasiswa yang terdaftar di PTN, tahun 1997 ( Analisis 5) dibagi menjadi 3 kategori yaitu: kurang 10.000 mahasiswa; antara 10.000 &#8211; 50.000 mahasiswa; dan di atas 50.000 mahasiswa. Katagori 3 terdiri dari propinsi DI.Yogyakarta, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Barat, Jawa Timur dan DKI Jakarta. Sedangkan distribusi Mahasiswa yang terdaftar di PTS, tahun 1997 ( Analisis 6) dengan 3 katagori yaitu : kurang dari 10.000 mahasiswa; antara 10.000 &#8211; 100.000 mahasiswa dan diatas 100.000 mahasiswa. Ternyata Propinsi Sumatera Utara, Jawa Barat, DKI Jakarta dan Jawa Timur, termasuk katagori 3.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Data mengenai Distribusi Jumlah Mahasiswa Baru di PTN dan PTS seperti yang tercantum pada<span> </span>Analisis 7 dan 8 untuk PTN yang diatas 20.000 mahasiswa baru meliputi Propinsi Sulawesi Selatan, Sumatera Utara, D.I. Yogyakarta, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur, Jawa Barat dan DKI Jakarta, sedangkan dilingkungan PTS distribusi mahasiswa baru yang diatas 20.000 mahasiswa baru meliputi Propinsi NTB, Lampung, Sumatera Selatan, Aceh, Bali, Sumatera Barat, Sulawesi Selatan, DI Yogyakarta, Jawa Tengah, Sumatera Utara, Jawa Barat, DKI Jakarta dan Jawa Timur.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Tenaga pengajar juga dianggap sebagai pengguna potensial dapat dilihat pada<span> </span>Analisis 9 mengenai Distribusi Tenaga Pengajar PTN menurut propinsi tahun 1997 dan<span> </span>Analisis10 mengenai Distribusi Tenaga Pengajar PTS menurut propinsi , tahun 1997. Dari kedua analisis tersebut diatas, maka pada<span> </span>Analisis 9 jumlah pengajar<span> </span>di atas 3000 meliputi: DI Yogyakarta, DKI Jakarta, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur dan Jawa Barat, sedangkan tenaga pengajar di lingkungan PTS (Tabel Analisis 10) jumlah pengajar di atas 3000 pengajar meliputi: Sumatera Selatan, Sulawesi Selatan, DI Yogyakarta, Sumatera Utara, Jawa Tengah, Jawa barat, Jawa Timur dan DKI Jakarta.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dari hasil analisis seperti pada<span> </span>Analisis 1 sampai pada Analisis 10 dapat ditarik kesimpulan bahwa yang paling berpontensi sebagai pemakai perpustakaan digital <strong>adalah Propinsi Jawa Barat, Jawa tengah, Jawa Timur, DI Yogyakarta dan DKI Jakarta</strong>, sedangkan Pulau Sumatera terdiri dari <strong>Sumatera Utara, Sumatera Barat, Sumatera Selatan, Aceh dan Lampung</strong>. Sedangkan di kawasan Indonesia Timur meliputi Propinsi<span> </span><strong>Sulawesi Selatan, dan Bali</strong>.</span></p>
<p class="bodi"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="bodi1"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">A.<span> </span>POTENSI PEMAKAI<span> </span>DL</span></p>
<p class="hspasi"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="bodi1"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Departemen/Lembaga non-Departemen</span></p>
<p class="bodi1"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;font-weight:normal;"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Data SDM di departemen sektoral meliputi sarjana S1, S2 dan S3 yang bekerja di Litbang atau unit teknis lain, dan pejabat eselon II keatas yang berlokasi dikantor Pusat, Jakarta. Pada kantor-kantor Menteri Negara potensi pengguna informasi Iptek paling tidak eselon III keatas yang digunakan sebagai bahan pengambil keputusan atau perencanaan penelitian. Sedangkan potensi pada lembaga /badan non-departemen<span> </span>meliputi mereka yang terlibat dalam kegiatan penelitian atau pengembangan<span> </span>dan pejabat fungsional lain .<span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Persebaran pengguna informasi Iptek pada tiap-tiap propinsi yang berasal dari Departemen<span> </span>dan Lembaga Non-Departemen, terlihat bahwa <strong>Jakarta </strong>sebagai Ibu kota dan pusat pemerintahan merupakan daerah dengan potensi yang paling besar di Indonesia, dikuti propinsi lain di pulau Jawa, yaitu Propinsi <strong>Jawa Barat, Jawa Timur, Jawa Tengah dan D.I.Yogyakarta.</strong></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Di wilayah P. Sumatera, ternyata Propinsi Sumatera Utara mempunyai potensi terbesar, diikuti <strong>Propinsi Sumatera Selatan dan Sumatera Barat.</strong> Sedangkan untuk wilayah Indonesia bagian Timur (termasuk <strong>Kalimantan</strong> dan <strong>Nusa Tenggara</strong>), Propinsi <strong>Sulawesi Selatan dan Bali</strong><span> </span>mempunyai potensi pengguna informasi Iptek<span> </span>yang cukup menonjol. </span></p>
<p class="bodi1"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="bodi1"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Perguruan Tinggi Negeri</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Jumlah PTN di Indonesia pada tahun 1998 sebanyak 76 buah dan tersebar tidak merata di 26 propinsi. Dari jumlah tersebut , ternyata<span> </span>22 buah diantaranya (44,9 persen) berlokasi di P. Jawa.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Jumlah dosen tetap seluruhnya 158.357 orang, atau 30,2 persen diantaranya adalah dosen tetap PTN yang berlokasi di P. Jawa, dengan<span> </span>urutan<span> </span>Propinsi Jawa Timur, Jawa barat, Jawa Tengah, Jakarta dan DIY. Di-wilayah Sumatera, jumlah dosen terbanyak terdapat di Propinsi Sumatera Utara, Sumatera Barat dan Sumatera Selatan, sedangkan di-wilayah Timur urutan jumlah dosen terbanyak terdapat di Propinsi Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Utara dan Bali.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Indikasi yang sama juga terlihat pada jumlah mahasiswanya , dari jumlah mahasiswa 2.350.989 orang untuk seluruh Indonesia, ternyata 1.603.290 orang (35 persen) merupakan mahasiswa dari perguruan tinggi yang ada di pulau jawa. Wilayah Sumatera , secara berurutan jumlah mahasiswa terbanyak terdapat di Propinsi Sumatera Utara, Sumatera Barat, Aceh dan Sumatera Selatan. Sedangkan di-wilayah Indonesia lain Propinsi yang cukup menonjol adalah Sulawesi Selatan, Bali dan Sulawesi Utara.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="bodi1"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Perguruan Tinggi Swasta (PTS)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Pemakai DL<span> </span>pada PTS<span> </span>juga menunjukkan data yang sama dengan di PTN. Terlihat bahwa P. Jawa tetap sebagai potensi pemakai yang dominan, sedangkan Propinsi Sumatera Utara, Sumatera Barat, Sumatera Selatan, dan Aceh merupakan daerah yang menonjol di wilayah Sumatera. Sedangkan wilayah Indonesia lain, Propinsi Sulawesi Selatan merupakan daerah yang paling potensial, diikuti oleh Propinsi Bali dan Sulawesi Utara.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Industri Besar dan Menengah</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dari 5 bidang industri besar dan menengah di P. Jawa, tahun 1996 memiliki jumlah tenaga kerja sebesar 50.787.584 orang. Jumlah tersebut merupakan 59,67% dari 9 bidang industri dengan jumlah tenaga kerja sebanyak 85.701.813 orang diseluruh Indonesia. Propinsi Jawa Barat mempunyai jumlah industri yang terbesar, diikuti oleh Propinsi Jawa Timur, Jawa Tengah, DKI Jakarta, dan DI Yogyakarta. Sedangkan di-wilayah Sumatera, jumlah industri<span> </span>terbesar berlokasi di Propinsi Sumatera Utara, sedangkan untuk wilayah Indonesia lain, jumlah industri yang cukup menonjol berlokasi di Propinsi<span> </span>Bali dan Sulawesi Selatan. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">B.<span> </span>LOKASI PENYEDIA JASA informasi iptek</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Mengacu pada persebaran potensi pemakai DL di setiap propinsi di Indonesia, maka pemilihan awal dari lokasi penyedia layanan informasi Iptek seperti perpustakaan, pusat dokumentasi, pusat<span> </span>informasi<span> </span>atau pusat data elektronik (electronic data processing) dan<span> </span>sebagainya. Penyedia jasa informasi Iptek dapat dibagi menjadi beberapa katagori sebagai berikut :</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">a.<span> </span>National Centre : Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">b.<span> </span>Regional Center<span> </span>terdiri dari :</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Wilayah P. Sumatera : </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:2cm;text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">- Medan (Propinsi Sumatera Utara)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:2cm;text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">- Padang (Propinsi Sumatera Barat)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Wilayah P. Jawa: </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>- Bandung (Propinsi Jawa Barat)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>- Surabaya (Propinsi Jawa Timur)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>- Semarang (Propinsi Jawa Tengah)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span><span> </span>- DI Yogyakarta</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Wilayah Indonesia bagian Timur:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:2cm;text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">- Makasar (Propinsi Sulawesi Selatan) </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Beberapa kota yang dipilih sebagai “regional<span> </span>centers” tersebut, merupakan ibukota propinsi, sedangkan DKI Jakarta sebagai “National Centre”,<span> </span>karena kedudukannya secara hirarki sebagai ibu kota negara mempunyai fungsi yang sangat strategis. Secara otomatis semua kegiatan baik pendidikan, penelitian, pusat informasi, dokumentasi dan perpustakaan juga cukup dominan di Jakarta.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dipilihnya ibukota propinsi sebagai “Regional Centers” didasarkan<span> </span>atas pertimbangan sbb.: </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1. <span> </span>Ibukota propinsi merupakan pusat pemerintahan daerah, pemukiman, perdagangan, kegiatan penduduk dan Iptek (penelitian, pendidikan, pengembangan dan perencanaan pembangunan).</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">2. <span> </span>Pada umumnya merupakan lokasi PTN dan PTS.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">3. <span> </span>Kegiatan industri baik besar dan menengah juga banyak yang berlokasi di ibu kota propinsi.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">4. <span> </span>Merupakan &#8220;growth pole&#8221; di propinsi yang besangkutan.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Beberapa kemungkinan kondisi di luar Jawa belum cukup mengembirakan jika dilihat dari sudut pengelola dan pemakai informasi. Kurangnya interaksi secara optimal disebabkab beberapa hal sebagai berikut:<span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1.<span> </span><span> </span>Fasilitas dan koleksi perpustakaan kurang memadai dan &#8220;up-to-date&#8221; informasinya, terutama jurnal ilmiah asing yang baru.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">2.<span> </span><span> </span>Koleksi dan layanannya kurang memenuhi kebutuhan pemakai, terutama dikalangan mahasiswa dan dosen dalam proses belajar mengajar.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">3.<span> </span><span> </span>Lokasi yang mungkin kurang strategis sehingga sulit dijangkau atau<span> </span>diakses.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>4.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Alat akses informasi dan temu kembali informasi belum mendukung.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">5.<span> </span><span> </span>Terbatasnya kemampuan staf pengelola informasi baik<span> </span>kualitas maupun kuantitasnya, dalam melakukan layanan informasi pro-aktif, mengemas informasi serta kemampuan menganalisis informasi yang dibutuhkan pemakai.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:1cm;text-align:justify;text-indent:-1cm;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">6.<span> </span><span> </span>Kurangnya kegiatan promosi dan &#8220;user education&#8221; bagi pengguna untuk memperoleh dan menelusur informasi secara<span> </span>cepat,tepat dan mudah.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">C. kemampuan sumber daya informasi iptek</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span><span> </span>Dari hasil pengolahan data koleksi di setiap propinsi,diperoleh hasil bahwa jumlah koleksi tertinggi terdapat di Jawa Timur 1.098.261 judul, berikutnya berturut-turut D.I. Yogyakarta 932.691 judul; Jawa Barat 458.762 judul dan DKI Jakarta 319.623 judul. Perbandingan antara jumlah koleksi (1.098.261 judul) di Jawa Timur dan jumlah mahasiswanya (347.785 orang) adalah 3 : 1 menunjukkan angka yang signifikan. Berarti bahwa untuk 1 mahasiswa tersedia 3 buku. Hal tersebut menunjukkan kebutuhan informasi untuk pemekai dianggap cukup.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Adapun jumlah koleksi yang tersedia di perguruan tinggi di Indonesia sebesar 4.151.665 judul buku (5.655.860 eksemplar) dan 3.958 judul majalah . Data tersebut menunjukkan bahwa jumlah koleksi yang tersedia belum memenuhi kebutuhan informasi secara memadai, apabila dibandingkan dengan jumlah sebaran penduduknya. Pada perbandingan antara jumlah mahasiswa (2.348.563 orang) dengan jumlah koleksi (4.155.623 judul) adalah 1 : 2, berarti belum cukup memenuhi kebutuhan informasi pemakai.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Kondisi tersebut menyebabkan pemakai informasi lebih banyak memanfaatkan pusat-pusat informasi di luar perguruan tinggi, seperti pusat informasi Lembaga Pemerintah, pusat-pusat informasi khusus dan bahkan ke pusat-pusat informasi di luar negeri.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">KESIMPULAN</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Dari hasil Analisis Potensi<span> </span>pemakai DL di Indonesia, dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>1.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Melihat gambaran data dan hasil analisis potensi pemakai DL<span> </span>berdasarkan konsep DL sebagai penyedia informasi Iptek, maka <strong>P. Jawa</strong> merupakan wilayah yang paling potensial bagi pemakai informasi di Indonesia, dan berturut-turut diikuti oleh Propinsi <strong>Sumatera Utara, Sumatera Barat</strong> dan <strong>Sumatera Selatan</strong> (wilayah P. Sumatera). Sedangkan di kawasan Indonesia Timur adalah Propinsi <strong>Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Utara dan Propinsi Bali.</strong></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>2.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Lokasi penyedia informasi Iptek yang paling strategis saat ini di Indonesia adalah DKI Jakarta sebagai &#8220;National Centre&#8221; dan Kota Bandung, Yogyakarta, Surabaya, Medan, Padang dan Makasar sebagai &#8220;Regional Centre&#8221;. Kemungkinan di masa-masa yang akan datang dapat dikembangkan lebih banyak lagi &#8220;Regional Centre&#8221; bagi penyedia informasi sesuai dengan jiwa dan semangat UU no. 22 tahun 1998 tentang otonomi daerah.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>3.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Ternyata besarnya jumlah koleksi yang tersedia tidak menjamin terpenuhinya kebutuhan informasi di daerahnya. Hal tersebut disebabkan karena informasi bidang keilmuan tertentu mempunyai nilai tambah yang spesifik dan dokumennya sulit diperoleh dari sumber di dalam negeri, serta harga yang cukup mahal. Dengan kondisi tersebut menyulitkan pusat-pusat informasi di daerah untuk mengadakan koleksi ilmiah tersebut.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:18pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>4.<span style="font-family:&quot;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:7pt;line-height:normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Berdasarkan data pendapatan perkapita tertinggi yang terdapat di<span> </span>Propinsi <strong>Kalimantan Timur, Kalimantan Tengah dan Irian Jaya</strong>, namun <strong>kebutuhan informasinya</strong> sangat rendah, hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa tidak terdapat korelasi langsung antara tingkat pendapatan perkapita dan kebutuhan informasi Iptek.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"></span></p>
<p class="bodi1"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">DAFTAR BACAAN</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Dervin,Brenda and Michael, Nilan (1986). “ Information needs ans uses”<span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Dalam M.Williams(ed). <em>Annual Review of Information Science and Techno-</em></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><em><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span> </span>Logy .</span></em><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">21,3-33.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Effendi,Sofian (1989). Prinsip-prinsip pengukuran dan penyusunan skala. Dalam <em>Metode Penelitian Survei. </em>Ed. Masri Singarimbun dan Sofian Effendi. Jakarta: LP3ES.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Krikelas, James (1983). Information Seeking Behavior – Pattern and Concepts. <em>Drexel Library Quarterly, </em>19(2):5-20.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Pfeister,Susan Selby (1981). <em>Information needs and information seeking behavior of book publishing industry personnel. </em>Ann.Arbor. Michigan,University Microfilm International (Thesis Columbia University).</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Purnomowati,Sri [et.al].(1995). <em>Laporan Penelitian kebutuhan informasi dan perilaku pencarian informasi tenaga penelitian dan pengembangan di kalangan Industri Strategis.</em>Jakarta: Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia-Pusat Dokumentasi dan Informasi Ilmiah.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">UNISIST. (1981).<em>Guidelines on studies of information users (pilot version). </em>Paris: United National Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Direktori Kegiatan Penelitian di lembaga-lembaga penelitian Departemen, non-Departemen,Perguruan Tinggi dan Perusahaan Negara/Swasta. Jakarta: Biro Koordinasi dan Kebijaksanaan Ilmiah; Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, 1984.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Direktori Industri Pengolahan. Jakarta: Biro Pusat Statistik, 1998: 921 hal.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Keadaan Angkatan Kerja di Indonesia, Agustus 1998. Jakarta: Biro Pusat Statistik Februari 1999.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Direktori Laboratorium Penguji di Indonesia, 1992. Jakarta: Dewan Standardisasi Nasional,Sekretariat:Pusat Standardisasi-LIPI, 1992.133 hal.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Direktori Lembaga-lembaga Penelitian Indonesia. Edisi ke-2. Jakarta: Kantor Menteri Negara Riset dan teknologi; Sekretariat Dewan Riset Nasional; Desember 1996.351 hal.</span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText">Indikator Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi,Edisi ke-2, 1994, Jakarta: Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi (BPPT); kantor Menteri Negara Riset dan Teknologi (KMNRT); Pusat Analisa dan Perkembangan Ilmu Pengetahuan dan teknologi (PAPIPTEK-LIPI); Maret 1995: 143 hal.</p>
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